Huntingdon College | Political Science | Courses | What's New?
PSC 305: Presidency and Congress.

• A comprehensive update on the Bush Presidency and the 2004 presidential election.
• An expanded chapter 15 on the president's unilateral powers.
• A discussion of methodology and a recent rational choice literature on the presidency.

Chap. 1: Presidential Leadership (2000, 2002, 2008)
Chap. 2: Evolution of the Nominating Process (2002, 2006, 2008) .  .
Chap. 3: Part 1: The Presidential Election (2000, 2008)
Chap. 4: President and the Public (2000, 2008)
Chap. 5: President and the Media (2000, 2008)
Chap. 6: President’s Office (2000, 2008)
Chap. 7: Presidential Decision Making (2000, 2008)
Chap. 8: Psychological Presidency (2002, 2008) .  .
Chap. 9: President & Executive Branch (2002, 2008) .  .
Chap. 10: President & Congress (2004, 2008) .
Chap. 11: President & Judiciary (2002) .
Chap. 12: Domestic Policymaking
Chap. 13: Budgetary & Economic Policymaking (2008) .
Chap 14: Foreign & Defense Policymaking
Chap 15: The Unilateral Presidency NEW to 7e

o The Creation of the Institution- Fear of Monarchy. Two initial questions were asked: First, should the executive consist of an individual or several persons. Secondly, what powers, responsibilities, and functions will it serve? Claiming that the president would only possess executive authority (the ability to execute laws and make appointments) made it okay for an individual to take the position.  Limitations, checks and balances, and consequences were laid out to regulate executive power. (Vetoes, impeachment, Congressional approval)
o The Scope of Article II- “The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States”. Vague notion of presidential power outlined executive authority, but left most clarification to the legislature.

o Policy-Making Roles- law and precedent have expanded the scope of presidential authority. Presidents have developed the Policy-Making Roles in war policy, emergency policy, and foreign and domestic affairs. Often they do this by necessity and the other branches do not check their power. Edwards divides this into two types: Active and Passive. The former being where presidents expand executive power and the latter where they do not. They claim that presidents of the 20th century are generally active in accumulating power.
o Organizational Structure- The Constitution did not provide for an administrative structure, but did establish the departments of Foreign Affairs, Treasury, and War, an attorney general and a post master. Since then, Congress has established 12 more departments and more than 150 executive agencies. Pre-20th Century, these departments played an influential role in government, but have begun to decline with an active stance of presidential power.
o Public Dimensions- The presidency has become more active in the public as well, which is contributed to mass media, and can be used to focus attention on the leader, his policies and his activities. Edwards argues that this encourages constituent involvement and interest and can help a president promote his agenda. It is a way to manipulate the press, created the idea of a ‘communicator in chief’, heighten the expectations of presidential performance, and heighten communication between government and people.

o Edwards argues that the growth in expectations and roles of the executive has created many new problems that the president has to face. The size of government, the pressure to fix all problems (even ones normally left to the legislative branch), institutionalization ( too many rules and regulations!), the decline of political parties, the influence of interests groups (pluralism), the critical nature of the national media.

o Legal- analyzing the Constitution, laws, treaties, and legal precedents to understand the sources, scope, and use of the president’s formal powers, including their legal limitations. Edwards claims this is a limited analyzing technique because not much of what the president does can be evaluated by the question, does he have the authority under law?
o Institutional- the study of the structure, functions and operations of the presidency are the center of analysis. Edwards claims that this allows scholars to look into the formulation, coordination, promotion, and implementation of legislative programs, the executive’s relationship to the media and interests groups, and the president’s decision making process. President’s become impersonal actors, more like institutions themselves, which helps in understanding their role and influence.
o Political Power- the study of people within institutions and their relationships with each other. A more pluralistic approach shows how the presidency is affected by all actors in government and how his power is changed by those relationships. It changes the general view of ‘top-down’ perception (always from the president’s perspective), instead of the American Political system.
o Psychological: the idea that personality is a constant and that personality needs may be displaced onto political objects and become unconscious motivations for presidential behavior. Why do presidents act the way they do, without the effect of advisors, media, and interests groups?
- Two Perspectives of Presidential Leadership:
o The Strong President Model- Edwards claims that this is an individual rooted in American political culture, who provides strong and effective leadership—which ultimately effect the expectations and evaluations of all presidents. Claims this usually is lead from disillusionment.
o The Limited President Model- the idea that a strong leader is not prevalent in the executive, nor should they be, because individuals should not hold that much responsibility. This calls for the people to lower their expectations and lessen their criticism.

     What makes an ineffective president is the system, mostly its constitutional, institutional and political structures
              This has been since the 1970's, a gap has widened between expectations and performance

Creation of the Institution
     Should the leader be one person or several persons?
     What responsibilities could it posses and still be energetic, but safe?
     Solution
          James Wilson - 1 person
               Critics - 1 person is dangerous, "foetus of monarchy"
          James Madison
               Wanted to contrast the powers of the "American" leader with that of the king
               Develop the job responsibilities before deciding # of leaders
          Wilson (cont'd)
               The leader should only have the power to execute laws and make appointments
                    He helped develop "checks and balances" by the phrasing in the constitution

Scope of Article II
     Description of executive power very general, unlike Article I
     Scholars question, does this generalization give the president an undefined grant of authority
     Because the legislature of the Articles of Confederation was unable to respond to emergencies, the framers found it necessary
     to give the president some sort of emergency powers (John Locke - Second Treatise of Government)
     The President is also limited in foreign affairs
         The wording suggest the Senate is suppose to be in on the negotiation of treaties
          Executive powers expanded during emergency but still had limits
               Has to report on special sessions at the state of the union
               In the case of veto, 2/3 of both houses have the last word

Policy Making Roles
     Powers have grown dramatically
          Washington and Jefferson helped define what the war policy would actually be
     The want of a more activist government made McKinley and T. Roosevelt worked more closely with Congress in making
     major policy

Organizational Structure
     1939 - executive office of the president was created
          Constitution did not provide for an administrative structure
          During the 19th century, Congress ran the administrative side of government
               Changed at the beginning of the 20th century - president had more influence in Congress
               Taft helped organize government by forming the Committee on Economy and Efficiency, to recommend
               improvement
                    It suggested a more hierarchical structure with the president having a larger role.
                         Congress agreed only after WWI, when they needed help with the deficit and budget

Public Dimensions
     News gathering organizations and newspapers helped contribute to the president being more public
          T. Roosevelt used it to put focus on his policies and activities
          FDR held more press conferences than anyone before
               He had regular meetings with reporters in the oval office and radio "fireside chats"

Problems of Contemporary Leadership
     Institutional growth (staff and agencies)
     Policy making has been institutionalized
     Selection process in campaign more individualized
     Media is more critical
     Interest groups are professionalized
     Due to scandals of the late '60's to the present, no more "benefit of the doubt" for presidents

Thinking about leadership: Two Perspectives
     Director of Change - President is moving force of the system and the initiator of change
     Facilitator of Change - President pushes the government in which roles, responsibilities and powers are shared

Conceptual Focus
     Despite the writings on the presidency, the understanding of it is not like the Supreme Court or Congress, because the
     presidency operates mostly behind closed doors.
     Decision makers - Not accessible, reluctant to reveal information
     Journalist - Event oriented do not cover the president long enough so that a generalization can be developed
     No overall theory of behavior - literature does not say why the president does what he does or the consequences.

A. Historical Contrast:

Early Government had weaker executive, more accountable legislature

Hamilton fought for power of the president – lost.

A. Three Models of Power of the Office of the Executive:

a. Power is on a constant rise
b. Variable increase in the power, after president such as Lincoln and FDR
c. Power in president began to grow around the time of FDR and WWII

Budget making is one of the most important powers
Nixon creates OMB
President has his budget, which allows him to impact agenda and policy issues
1981 Reagan gives OMB policy power
Clinton loosened the regulatory ties of the OMB

President expected to handle too much stuff
Media pressure is increased due to watergate
Congress is more turbulent, and difficult to deal with
Although the Office of the president has grown, it has come under many more constraints as well

o Originally, nominations were not needed because founders believed in the qualifications for those who decided to run and the ability of consensus, but political parties divided nominees on their belief systems. Thus began conventions and caucuses, which grew until media made them accessible to the average voter. Today, convention nominations are the only way to officially accept candidacy.

o Party Reforms- Reformation began with the need to encourage greater participation in party activities and to make the convention more representative of typical Democratic voters. The new use of the convention to elect a presidential nominee created more competition within the party, and hasn’t proved to increase the voter turn out, but it does allow for more individual impact on the nomination. Edwards questions whether or not the positives out weigh the negatives. The Democratic Party has created new rules (minimum 15% vote to prevent less likely runners to diverge votes from the more probably candidates, superdelegates, nomination time frames—front-loading)
o Campaign Finance- The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974 provided for public disclosure, contribution ceilings, campaign spending limits, and federal subsidies for the nomination process. This is suppose to prevent illegal and secret contributions and to even the playing field for candidates.
o Public Relations- The use of mass media has changed the pre-nomination process, allowing for the convention nomination process to be observed by all. Candidates us polls to gage where their efforts would be more useful because they provide information about the opinions, beliefs, and attitudes of voters.  News coverage is also used to rouse the voters, and it has changed political campaigning. Edwards argues that though media has made reaching the mainstream easier, a candidate being out in the field meeting people is still a very effective method of reaching voters.

o A Strategic Game Plan- Starting early is key, preprimary and preconvention activism is necessary (even for incumbents), all resources must be used: media, fieldworkers, and internet. Finances must be secure early and strategic financial planning is essential, and a ‘targeting plan’ must be in effect, making sure all interest groups, individuals, and organizations are supporting the candidate.
o Non-Front-Runners- Edwards argues that if a potential nominee is not a front-runner, then their initial goal should be to establish their credentials as a viable contender. They must always be anticipating, pushing, and convincing others of their abilities.
o Pulpit Candidates- a candidate’s efforts to mobilize the grassroots, usually have extreme perspectives, have passionate supporters, but are considered non-traditional candidates.
o Front-Runners- Edwards claims their main goal is to maintain credibility; they have larger national recognition, resource bases and more political endorsements.

o Launching the Presidential Campaign
o The National Conventions – Edwards claims that the National Conventions have strayed from their original purpose of thanking loyal workers and big contributors and have become a scripted means of ‘uniting’ the party. They are show of party politics and hopefully create a positive attitude going into the general election.
o Characteristics of the Nominees- traditionally Caucasian males of northern European descent, though have begun to stray away from stereotype. Usually a well known politician before nomination. Many things hinder public assurance in a candidate including associations, health, age, finance, and family life.

EVOLUTION OF THE SYSTEM
-began to evolve after the writing of the Constitution and the first two presidential elections
-1796: party leaders gathered informally to agree on candidates
-1800: partisan congressional caucuses began to meet
-1830s: national nominating conventions were held
-20^th century: movement towards primaries in order to permit greater public participation

CHANGES IN THE POLITICAL ARENA
Party Reforms
-The Goals: greater public participation in party activities
-Because of primaries, the power of party leaders has weakened, competing candidate organizations were produced that can rival those of the party, and interest groups have gained leverage.
-A candidate’s personality has become more important.
-Front-loading forces candidates to begin their campaigns earlier, which in turn ends the competitive phase of the process sooner and extends the period during which the winning candidate and party must engage in campaign activities and advertisements before the national nominating conventions are held.
-A two-year quest for a party’s nomination has become almost standard; one year is the absolute minimum.

Campaign Finance
-The Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA), enacted in 1974, provided for public disclosure, contribution ceilings, campaign spending limits, and federal subsidies for the nomination process.
-The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) of 2002 prohibited the major parties from soliciting or spending soft money in federal elections and raised the contribution limits that individuals could contribute to candidates and their parties.

Public Relations
-Candidates use polls to determine how they concentrate their time, effort, and money.
-The use of visual and audio media has made image creation more important, brought public relations specialists into candidate organizations, and siphoned off a relatively large proportion of the campaign budget for television and radio.
-political commercials
-candidates still need to organize at the grassroots

THE QUEST FOR THE NOMINATION: A STRATEGIC GAME PLAN
1. sufficient time and energy; 2. Strong field organization; 3. Firm financial base;

4. Rules must be understood; 5. Groups must be targeted and appeals must be made
-non-front-runners need recognition and momentum
-front-runners have to maintain credibility, not establish it

THE NONCOMPETITIVE PHASE OF THE NOMINATION PROCESS
-This is the period during which candidates need to maintain media attention, improve their presidential image, broaden their issue appeals, and set the stage for launching their "official" campaign at their party’s nomination.
-Today, conventions are all show and little substance.

Characteristics of the Nominees
-usually well known
-had promising political careers
-health, age, finance, and family life are factors
-family ties have affected nominations
 
 

- The Strategic Environment:

o The Electoral College- This was created by the founders because, though they believed in government based on consent, they didn’t believe in direct democracy. Edwards claims that their hope was for a president who was qualified, not just popular. Members of the Electoral College are chosen by the states, and their number equals the number of senators and representatives from each state. They each have two votes, but can not case them both for inhabitants of their own state. The candidate with the highest becomes president, the second highest vice president. The Electoral College has faced many obstacles: What if the president receives the popular vote, not the Electoral College vote? What role should they play in political parties? What happens if the Electoral College is bias? This creates a competitive atmosphere between states and nominees.
o The Polity- The following ideas are public attitudes in campaigns, and how they effect the candidate’s chances of getting elected: Identification with a political party, characteristics of candidates such as leadership potential, decision-making capabilities, and personal traits affect vote as well, incumbent status v. challenger, a candidate’s stance on certain issues, type of people who actually turn out to vote,
o Financial Considerations- a candidate must be able to financially support a national campaign. With limitations put on donation amounts, they look towards the party, individual contributors, and fund-raising.
o News Coverage- Edwards argues that media enhances the strategic environment to provide clarification and coverage on the campaign. News media is used to the advantage of each candidate—Edwards claims that they tend to reinforce the feelings and loyalties of the party faithful, excite interest, arouse concern, improve knowledge, and ultimately sway voters.

o Creating an Organization- Edwards claims that organization is central to coordinating all tasks that need to be performed to run a campaign—advance work, scheduling, press arrangements, issue and candidate research, speech writing, polling, advertising, grassroots organizing, accounting, budgeting, legal activities, ect. The loose structure of Kerry’s campaign v. the strict structure of Bush’s in 2004.
o Designing an Image- Edwards lists the attributes of the ideal president (honest, trustworthy, bold, and decisive) and contrasts them with a president’s lack of intuition, decision making capabilities, and candor. How does this affect the incumbent?
o Projecting a Partisan Appeal- Edwards argues that candidates use partisanship as a means by which to separate themselves from the other runner, to emphasis the strength of their positions on policy and to create a negative image of their opponent.
o Building a Winning Coalition- The goal of building a winning coalition is to win the electoral votes in that state. Edwards divides them into three operational strategies: 1. Rekindle partisan loyalty. 2. generate an appeal to independents. 3. turn out a sizable vote. They do this by broadening their target range to include minorities and independents—not just focusing on partisan activists.
o Media Tactics- campaigns are designed for maximum public impact and to consistently reiterate themes, symbols, and ideas about the candidate. Debates allow voters to see the candidate in ‘action’ and provide a more spontaneous atmosphere. Ads and news coverage are scripted to focus on issues, while also questioning the character and abilities of opposing candidates.

o Predictions and Polls- Prior to election, political scientists measure the health of the economy, the popularity of the president, and the satisfaction of the populace on a quantitative scale. They then put this data in models, according to past elections, and predict which candidate will win the election. These predictions do not base themselves on the campaign, but on the environment in which it is occurring with in. Polling, however, follows the campaign and people’s perception of the candidate.
o Analyzing the Results- obviously it declares who wins and looses, but also gives information about who voted for whom, what are the presidential expectations, what are the perceptions of the new president, and what policies voters hope are pursued.
o Assessing the Mandate- when a new president is elected, his agenda automatically becomes the new administrations agenda (regardless of voter margin). Edwards claims that ‘What candidates promise matters; who win does make a difference’.
o Converting the Electoral Coalition for Governance- it is difficult to adhere to performance expectations and create a set of policy goals that create a successful governing administration. After election, it becomes a careful balance of pleasing supporters, cooperating with others in D.C., remembering group interest, and actually accomplishing promised objectives. Edwards claims that to be successful they must create their own policy alliances and mobilize their supporters and take to unifying the country as a whole.

The Strategic Environment

The Electoral College

• created to protect the president's independence
• meant as a way to choose the most qualified person, not most popular
• original methods to electing Pres.: selection by legislature- threat to Presidential  independence
• : election by voters -- public can't choose   the best qualified

Electoral College compromise- electors chosen by states

       - # of electors equal to # of senators & reps
       - each had 2 votes but could only cast one  for person of own state
       - person receiving majority in college is  Presidential and second is vp
 

• 10 yrs after fed Gov. begin operation, parties developed and electors  were caught up in party politics
• 1804 Constitution was amended to allow for separate election of Presidential  and vp
• college works to the detriment of third and independent candidates
• proposals to reform college: 1) allocate states electoral vote in  proportion to its popular vote

The Polity
need to study public political attitudes and  patterns of social interaction

Partisanship

• party ID operates as a filter to public, providing clues for interpreting  issues, judging candidates, and deciding if and how to vote
• less voters know about candidates & issues, more likely to vote party  lines
• when party ID is weak, personalities and issue positions count
• knowing how a candidate stands on issues, allows voters to decide if  they want to elect them
• issues must stand out from campaign rhetoric
• most committed voters are most informed & use knowledge to support  their party

Turnout

• weakening of party affiliation has decreased turnout
• "motor voter" bill hoped to increase turnout by making it easier to  register, has not happened
• education play important role in turnout .... better educated = higher turnout

Electoral Coalitions

• Democratic Coalitions
• Hispanics, African Americans, Jews, unmarried women, young  voters, large industrial states
• Republican Coalitions
• business and professional people, white Protestants, white collar  workers, upper & middle- class, Sunbelt, West, Rocky  Mountain states, Christian fundamentalists

Financial Considerations

major candidates receive funding from government; third party candidates get  funding if they receive 5% of of presidential vote -- get $ in proportion  to popular vote
national parties spend $.02 for every citizen of voting age in support of their  nominees
Fed Election Campaign Act allow state & local parties to spend unlimited  amount on funds for voluntary efforts to turn out vote -"soft  money"

News Coverage

voters follow campaigns on TV
policy questions receive less coverage than events surrounding  campaign
first time candidate states a position it is news
average length quote in ‘68 was 42.3 seconds; ‘92- 8.4 sec; ’96-8.2
commentators and anchors tell story of election, not candidates
TV influence independents by exciting interest, arouse concern, improve  knowledge, affect decision to vote

-  campaigning by presidential candidates began in 1840 with the candidacy of General William Henry Harrison.

-  however, campaigning soon faded, before resurfacing in the 1880’s with the campaign of James Garfield.

-  the advent of television created both opportunities and obstacles for candidates  (focus on candidate's personal image;  be able to both make broad public appeals and target specific groups in the electorate; development of campaign organizations)

I.  Creating an Organization

-  political organizations have many responsibilities in a presidential campaign (i.e. advance work, press arrangements, research, advertising, etc.)

-  historically, Democratic campaign organizations have been more decentralized and less rigid than those of their Republican counterparts (the Clinton campaigns were exceptions)

-  in addition to helping a candidate win an election, campaign organizations also make the transition to government and provide a preview of the new administration (Reagan’s passive style vs. Clinton’s more direct involvement)

-  many campaign personnel are later selected to serve in many administrative positions.

II.  Designing an Image

-  in order to be elected, candidates need to exhibit the characteristics of an ideal president (act "presidential")

-  candidates need to display such traits as strength, boldness, decisiveness, honesty, integrity, and trustworthiness.

-  however, it is also important that a candidate must at least have the appearance of possessing the skill and knowledge necessary to hold the office.

-  incumbency has both strengths and weaknesses in a campaign - presidents  usually receive blame for the nation's problems and will often receive more credit than they deserve for the nation's successes.

-  more difficult as a challenger - must be able to "discredit" the incumbent while maintaining a "presidential" persona.

-  candidates tend to associate themselves with the traditional "platforms" of their  respective parties:  Democrats usually emphasize such economic issues as jobs, wages, and benefits;  Republicans focus on "family values"

*  however, in 1992 and 1996, Clinton achieved great success by taking the "middle  road" on a number of issues that the republicans had hoped to use as ammunition against him (i.e. family values, personal safety, etc.)

-  emphasizing the negative:  belief that, the more negative the perception of a candidate is, the less likely his chances are of winning the election (this strategy backfired for Rep. candidate Bob Dole in the 1996 election)

IV.  Building a Winning Coalition

-  it is essential for candidates to form solid coalitions in order to win an election (often includes determining both their bases of support and the states with the most electoral votes.

-  three primary goals of political coalitions:  revive partisan loyalty, appeal to independents, and encourage a sizable voter turnout.

-  in the nomination process, candidates usually focus on party activists in an attempt  to gain the party nomination;  they must broaden their focus, however, in the general election to include the most diverse group of potential voters.

-  campaigns also focus their resources on specific geographic regions, namely  those states with the most electoral votes (this hurt Dole in 1996 - couldn’t decide where to allocate resources)

V.  Media Tactics
 

a.  News Coverage

 -  control over media coverage is very important in a campaign.

 -  speeches, press releases, and advertisements are geared to strengthen the appeal of a candidate (i.e. sound bites, symbols, constant presentation of campaign themes, etc.)

 -  candidates hope that their coverage in the media centers around their agenda, issues, and policy positions, not topics selected by the media for the entertainment of their audience.

b.  Debates

 -  debates have become of vital importance to the presidential campaign

 -  candidates often view debates as an opportunity to improve their image, while damaging the image of their opponent

 -  "spin doctors" are usually available to speak to the media following the debates, hoping to improve the press's evaluation of their candidate.

 -  debates usually help the challenger by providing national exposure, but rarely have a major impact on the perceptions of voters;  in fact, they often simply reinforce the views of those who watch them.

c.  Ads

 -  ads must seem truthful, convey relevant info., and be interesting in order to be effective

 -  ads usually target a specific group of people or geographic region in an attempt to associate with the needs of the people in a given area.

 -  negative advertising is also frequently used, but can be excessive (George Bush in 1988 and 1992)

 -  quick response to ads is also important in the shaping of voter perceptions and attitudes

I.  Polling of the People

-  since 1916, nationwide polls have been taken in order to evaluate the opinions and  sentiments of the American electorate towards a given election;  however, polls  are not always accurate indicators of the results of the election (i.e. Landon and  Dewey)

-  perhaps the most accurate poll is the exit poll, a survey taken once voters leave the  voting booth;  however, in the hands of the media, the accuracy of exit polls can often adversely affect those who have yet to vote by prematurely predicting the winners

II.  Analyzing the Results

-  the results of an election can reflect the electorate’s expectations for the new president

III.  Assessing the Mandate

-  presidents are rarely given a clear mandate for governing.

-  in order for a mandate to exist, candidates must take distinct and compatible positions on the issues, and must be elected on these issues;  also, the party of the president needs to be consistent with the majority party in Congress

-  nonetheless, presidents are expected to keep the promises they make during the campaign

IV.  Converting the Electoral Coalition for Governance

-  it has become much more difficult for a successful electoral coalition to achieve the same degree of success as a governing coalition (i.e. decline of party leaders, autonomy of state and congressional electoral systems, etc.)

-  it is important for presidents to exhibit strong leadership ASAP; also, they need to establish priorities consistent with their campaigns and the will of the people

-  furthermore, presidents must take advantage of their opportunities (i.e. create policy alliances, rally supporters, etc.)

-  presidents usually suffer a decline in popularity over time which can inhibit their  ability to accomplish their objectives

-  thus, presidents are relegated to being facilitators when they might wish to be the  agents of change

- Understanding Public Opinion:

o American’s Opinions- Edwards claims that most American’s, individually, do not have the time, knowledge, or inclination to form educated opinions on policy and governmental issues, though they readily share them! But, the collective public opinion holds stable, real, and sensible opinions about policy—this type of opinion is essential to a president and his ability to please his constituency.
o Public Opinion Polls- This is a common tool in measuring public attitudes and allows the president to learn ‘how a cross section of the population feels about a specific policy, general living conditions, or the administration’s performance. Problems with polls: often don’t engage the intensity of the problem, seldom ‘mesh’ with the decisions that presidents face, result may reflect the wording of the choices (agree/disagree). Edwards argues that polls rarely influence government decisions, but do influence political strategy.
o Presidential Election Results- A candidate’s support in the election can help to gauge the concerns of the public and their constituents. *If they support the candidate, they supported their platforms.
o Mail from the Public- mail, both letters and e-mail, are seldom used to understand public opinion because little mail actually provides useful information and insight into policy.
o Acting Contrary to Public Opinion- A president sometimes chooses to go against public opinion. They do this for a number of reasons, including representing the silent majority, the underrepresented, and statesmen, and they also often feel like they know more about policy, therefore are more guided in the subject and more likely to make better decisions.

o High Expectations- ‘the public’s expectations of the president in the area of policy are substantial and include the assurance of peace, security, and prosperity.’ Though, Edwards later claims that though expectations are high in security and economic matters, the margin often appears in social expectations. American’s expect successful politics and an extraordinary individual, both strong and morally straight (!). Edwards says that these high expectations span from the candidates themselves, political socialization, the prominence of the president, his tendency to personalize, and a lack of understanding of the context in which the president works. This often leads to negative consequences.
o Contradictory Expectations- ‘contradictory expectations of presidents deal with either the content of policy or their style of performance.’ Edwards highlights the paradoxes within the expectations ( leader but follower of public opinion, open-minded and compromising but decisive and firm, statesman but politician loyal to his party, run open administrations but in control of the White House, relatable but exceptional)

o Levels of Approval- the president’s most visible and significant aspect of the presidents’ relations with the public. The public is often fickle in its level of approval, and presidents cannot depend on it.
o Party Identification- evaluations of the president’s performance reflect the underlying partisan loyalties of the party. Naturally, members of the candidate’s party are more likely to approve higher than those of the opposing party (though often to not a great degree!)
o Positivity Bias- ‘the tendency to show evaluation of the public figures and institutions in a generally positive direction’. The American tendency to lean towards the positive instead of the negative can often work in a president’s favor. (Edwards claims this is especially important at the beginning of an administration) As the public become more acquainted with the candidate, they lean more towards the negative, often caused by bandwagoning, depolarization of politics after an election, and positive bias itself create attitude change.
o The Persistence of Approval- Substantial support does not last long after the election. Alienation soon begins as the president faces difficult decisions and the politics of Washington, but sometimes it does last longer than what Edwards calls ‘the honeymoon’. He claims that though declines to occur, they are not inevitable or swift and his first few months allows the president to establish a popular base before his support declines.
o Long-Term Decline- Beginning in 1966 approval levels changed dramatically and since then presidents receive a bare minimum of support (Edwards argues that it might have been the war in Vietnam and the Watergate Scandal?) There is an inconsistency amongst presidents in approval ratings, but generally there is a decline in enthusiasm amongst voters.
o Personality or Policy? - There is often a positive effect on approval when the president has a ‘favorable’ personality, but it can not explain for shifts in approval rating (does his personality change, therefore his approval rating change?)
o Personal Characteristics- or integrity, intelligence, and leadership abilities--decision making style often effects approval in relation to social and security issues.
o Issues- Obviously a president’s stance on issues and his ability to make responsible and well rounded decisions in regards to those issues is an important factor in approval ratings. Edwards argues it is the single most important factor.
o Rally Events- there are certain occurrence that boosts a president’s approval rating—often regarding national security, defense or the economy (crisis or international events), which helps the public’s confidence in a candidate.

o Direct Opinion Leadership- the idea that seeking the public’s opinion in policy and government matters is the best way to gain the public’s support. They do this by being public and noticeable figures, but the public’s recent general lack of interest is hindering their ability to utilize this method. Edwards says that presidents have to worry about their medium and their message.
o Framing Issues- The complexity of issues, both relative to voters and not so relative, creates burdens for average Americans and the White House. The people’s perception of these issues is based on their value system, which the president can then try to mold and change in his favor.
o The Use of Symbols- the use of simple language (or symbols as Edwards calls it) helps make policy choices more relatable and understandable—impacting how much influence the president can have over the public and the possibility of support. This can be tag-lines, values, ect. Anything to put a positive and reassuring message to a complex idea.
o Public Relations- the importance of substance, presentation, and timing of policy. Public Relations tools are used to ‘get the word out’ about policies, reach a broader audience, produce a good image, and increase public involvement and support.
o Success of Opinion Leadership- Is asking for the public’s opinion an effective way to gain their support? No! Edwards argues that it doesn’t. He states that the direct leadership of public opinion provides opportunities, especially in foreign policy, but no guarantees of success!
o Information Control- This is the idea that controlling what information the public sees, when they see it, how clear it is, and how true it is, are ways to influence public opinion. Edwards argues that this gives presidents more flexibility in dealing with issues, because the public isn’t as aware.

- Presidents lead the general public towards their goals not push the goals on the public.

- There are two types of presidents;

- Public opinion polls tell what the majority of the public wants.

- Despite the several ways to inform the president of public opinion, it is not always followed

- Reasons for presidents not following public opinion include:

Public’s goals from the president:

- leader, statesman, open-minded, and relate to average person.

- The Evolution of Media Coverage: The media is the main what that president’s communicate with the public, but they also play an active role in analyzing and interpreting policies and activities. Originally there was little media attention, but the 20th century and technological advances allowed presidents to use a variety of media resources: newspapers, television, internet, ect. Edwards claims that the presidency and the media will always conflict.
- Relations Between the President and the Press:

o The White House Press Corps- there is an elite group of diverse media that covers the White House regularly—newspapers, magazines, foreign press.
o The Presidential Press Operation- The person who deals daily and directly with the press is the president’s press secretary, who serves as the media representative for the executive. Presidents often have to coordinate the news, limiting or allowing certain information to flow—also when, how, and where it flows. Edwards claims that it is essential for a president to follow the news as well.
o The Presidential Press Conference- this is best-known direct interaction between the president and the press. These have become more formal in recent years, but different presidents use different methods. Many presidents consider these crucial to communication.
o Services for the Press-

1. Briefings: held weekday mornings and afternoon for the White House Press in which the media is updated on any changes or events.
2. Backgrounders: a media source which allows for the president or those in the White House to speak or give information concerning position or status without being identified.
3. Interviews: Individual interviews with important White House staff are valuable to the media and are often done as ‘favors’.
4. Cultivation: This more a means of flattery and favoritism.

o Managing the News- the White House can manage the news by creating a positive agenda—representing the president at his best—and monitoring their access to less positive events. By reaching out to local news stations and mediums, the executive is able to limit attention to larger media sources, such as Washington and New York, who are often critical.

o Leaks- information leaks can be a major liability to the president, but everyone is usually responsible in some sense, even the president himself. Sometime it is done on purpose to promote a policy and to test public opinion, and to assist in foreign policy, for personal political goals, and political pressure.
o Superficiality- this is the idea that the press is more concerned about the ‘personal and trivial’ and not the substance of politics. But, Edwards says that this is due to the fact that main stream media is responsible for relaying information to the American public about complex issues that must be short and simple. But, that this means of communication often hurts the president.
o Bias- Edwards claims that this is the most politically charged issue in press relations with the president. While it is impossible to completely eliminate biases within the media, there is a fair amount of neutral coverage.

o Setting the Public’s Agenda- What impact does media coverage have on the public opinion? Edwards claims that the media helps in familiarizing policy, therefore making the public more receptive to it. They can do this by up or down playing an issue (more media time=more important, less media time=less important)
o Media Framing and Priming- ‘Media coverage of issues and events may prime the criteria most people select for evaluating the president’, and the media is more likely to influence perceptions than attitudes.
o Public Knowledge- Edwards claims that the media has a substantial impact on the public’s knowledge of public policy. Interesting fact: ‘Research has found that people are frequently misinformed about policy, and the less they know, the more confidence they have in their beliefs.’
o Limiting the President’s Options- Just as the president can effect the issues the media covers, the media can also affect the issues that the president should focus on. Since the media is the way people acquire knowledge, it can often limit what the president can do, especially in times of crisis. They can create a negative image that works against an executive.
o Undermining the President- ‘the preoccupation of the press with personality, drama, and the results of policies does little to help the public appreciate the complexity of presidential decision making, the trade-offs involved in policy choices, and the broad trends outside the president’s control.’ Instead in paints an incomplete, negative picture in which the president doesn’t perform or provide as hoped.
o Limits on Media Effects- the media’s influence is limited by the characteristics of the readers and viewers, general lack of interest in politics, lack of attentiveness and follow through, and forgetfulness. Other limits such as time, resources, staff, and sources affect the media as well.

Evolution of Media Coverage

Relations between the President and the Press

Press Corps

journalists from major news organizations. covering the White House

1/3 White House staff involved in media relations

Press Secretary

must be credible 1) credibility and 2) access to & respect of president

help reporters gain access to staff members

explain needs of press to pres.

give pres. advice on image presented to press

Services for the Press: briefings, backgrounders, interviews, cultivation

Managing the News: briefing, press releases used to divert attention from embarrassing matters

Press Coverage of the President

- Leaks: trial balloons, info leaked to cause favorable stories, send other nations signals of US attitude,

influence personal matters

- Superficiality: short run, instant history

- Bias, Distortion

- Themes

- simplify complex issues and events and provide continuity of persons, institutions and issues

- emphasizes some info at expense of other data

Media Activism: Somalia

Negativity: scandals -- Monica

Media Effects

media has little or no influence on public opinion, just reinforce existing attitudes

Media Priming

• influence perceptions rather than attitudes
• those with little concern for politics susceptible to media more because have no other means of education on issues

Limits on Media Effects

characteristics of readers and viewers limit impact of media

ability of people to reject or ignore evaluations in stories

great volume of info available

time to absorb info

superficial coverage

disconnected snippets in TV and papers

visuals distract verbal messages

- Organizing Executive Advice:

o The Evolution of the Cabinet- Initially the framers did not include an advisory council for the president, but the presidency began to use the department heads as advisors—thus creating the executive cabinet, and members are expected to provide counsel and support. Each president varies on the influence and decisive nature of the cabinet, ultimately declining in importance, but communication between the departments is still essential to success.
o The Creation of the Presidential Bureaucracy- Edwards claims that the Executive Office of the President was created in 1939 due to the growth of the executive branch, the need for coordination within it, and the orientation of the departments toward their clientele and its goal is to help the president perform central, nondelegable tasks, including those involved in their expanded policy-making and policy implementation roles. Today it consists of eleven offices, two executive residences, on board, a staff of 1,833 authorized personnel and a budget of $328 million. Changes have occurred to do ‘historical accidents’.
o Consequences of Structural Change- Changes occur with the management styles of the individual presidents and have produced instability, irregularity, and uncertainty within the organization. Also, other organizations have been formed to do what the EOP was initially intended to do. Edwards says that even though the EOP has increased the president’s discretion and influence, it has generated internal rivalry and competition. The paradox is this: the institutional mechanism has made it possible for the president to accomplish more, but as a result it has increased the demands and expectations on his job and the need for him to accomplish more.

o The Early Years- Beginning with no secretarial support, the size and job description of aides and secretaries to the president has grown substantially.
o The Personalized White House, 1939 to 1960- During these years president’s encouraged competition between few aides to increase productivity, while maintaining a personal and minimal atmosphere. Their influence spanned from their mediating role, their ability to obtain information, and their proximity to the president.
o The Institutionalized White House, 1980 to the Present- this era expanded the influence and importance of aides and secretaries, in which they became better known, exercised more power, and monopolized the president’s attention and time. Senior aides even became principal policy advisors, lower level aides were neglected, and the institutionalization of policy making gave president’s more discretion, decreased the president’s dependency of departments and agencies, and increased the status of assistants.
o Trends in White House Staffing- Each president expands the White House staff to meet the needs of his administration, his style, and his personal needs.
o The Growth of the Vice Presidency- Duties range from providing policy advice and making political appeals to performing a variety of ceremonial functions. The position has increased in importance since its founding—now holding national security positions, legislative power, advisory power, ect.
o The President’s Spouse- though not outlined in any way, spouses perform social and ceremonial functions, though are involved little in actual politics ( tell that to Hilary Clinton!) They can be both positive and negative forces.

The President’s Office
 

* presidency is too complex for one man to handle alone.

* executive agencies and departments intended to provide help but they answer to congress also so they don’t always help the president.

* president needs own advisory bodies and institutional structures.

* 3 reasons: 1) to obtain information on people and policies 2) to maintain linkage to the constituencies 3) to ensure priorities are clear, decisions are implemented, interests are, protected.

* presidents need good staff support but also need staff to tell them what they might not want to hear.

Organizing Executive Advise

The evolution of the cabinet.
 

* constitution did not create separate advisory council for the president, because of fear that president would blame them Ex: King could do not wrong (his advisors made the wrong decisions)

* originally planned to use secretaries a both administrative and advisory councils.

* personal relationships with congress put Secretaries in better shape than president so strong cabinets and weak presidents represented most of the 19^th century

* 20th century presidents influence increases

* FDR cabinet meetings became more of a discussion.

* Eisenhower cabinet resurgence 230 times year

* after Eisenhower presidents met with cabinet because they were expected to do so.

* cabinet decline because of need of specialized information and Secretaries lack of it.

The Development of Cabinet Councils
 

* This need of specialized information led to organizations of cabinet councils on certain issues; domestic, economic, and national security.

Creation of presidential Bureaucracy
 

* (EOP) Executive office of the President -- 1939

* misnomer -- not primarily executive nor a single office

* principle objective- help presidents perform non delegable tasks.

* 1st EOP -- Bureau of Budget and the White House

* now 12 offices, 2 Executive residences, 1800 staff, budget of 253 million.

* evolved in size but not function

* EOP is product of historical accidents and the needs of different administrations

NOTE: most extensive reorganization , Nixon

Consequences of Structural change
 

* structural changes produced instability in organization, irregularity in operations, turmoil in personnel.

* development of institutionalized presidency has enhanced President’s power but may also make it more difficult to ensure influence because of large size of staff.

* president can resolve this by two means

1) immerse themselves in administration and consume time and energy.

2) delegate authority and risk misuse

- Previous Commitments: The most important aspect of the president’s role is decision making, and this influence by all types of things. Edwards notes that it is crucial to understand the atmosphere in which the president makes decisions—they have to make decisions under severe constraints. There are often prior commitments made by the government that requires it to spend money, defend allies, maintain services, or protect rights. He is also strained by the institutional capabilities of the executive branch—which is also a product of past decisions.
- Time Constraints: There are severe constraints to the amount of time an executive has to accomplish goals due to a vast amount of diverse obligations. This also tends to create a hierarchy of issues within the agenda.
- Organization and Style of Decision Making:

o White House Organization- the organization of the White House reflects the personality and work habits of the incumbent and fall within two types: hierarchical and the ‘spokes of the wheel’ Though the organization varies, it is important. It can hinder or help in time management, which allows the president to focus on more important decisions.
o The Form of Advice-certain presidents communicate in certain ways: memos, memoranda, talking directly to aides. There are pros and cons to both oral and written communication—both with the chances or miscommunication, misunderstandings, and leaking. But, oral generally allows for clearer understanding and varying points of view, while written saves time and protects confidentiality.
o Multiple Advocacy- this refers to the range of options presents receive and the effectiveness with which those options are presented. This allows the president to keep from depending on one source of information, allows for a better quality of decision and for more issues to be discussed. But, this creates conflicts within staff and efficiency—too many people trying to explain too many things.
o Presidential Involvement- ‘presidents need information, including tangible details, to construct a necessary frame of reference for decision making. They can not assume that any person or advisory system will provide them with the options and information they require, and thus they must reach out widely’. This is the thought that presidents must physically retrieve and analyze data themselves to make effective decisions.

o Disagreeing with the President- this is often difficult for an advisor seeing as presidents are strong individuals and an advisor’s job depends on his approval. Therefore it is often hard for a president to get the critical, straightforward advice he needs.
o Discouraging Advice- ‘An executive who ‘punishes’ those aides who present options or information he dislikes may reinforce the reluctance of advisers to disagree with the president.’ This causes a reluctance to share information with the executive and causes tension between the president and his aides.
o Groupthink- this refers to the general phenomenon of people agreeing when they talk in small, cohesive decision-making groups (the idea of consensus) which allows for advisor ‘strength in numbers’.
o Staff Rivalries- feuding and internal fighting for power hinders the aides and advisors ability to provide good rationale for decision-making.
o Loss of Perspective-narrowing of viewpoints often occurs within the White House due to comfortable environments and isolation from ‘the real world’.
o Role Conceptions- ‘advisers’ conceptions of their jobs influence their delivery of information and options.’

o Organizational Parochialism- organizations tend to hire and recruit like-minded individuals who believe in the actions of the agency. The idea of status quo plays heavily in decision making, and uniformity can always be expected.
o Maintaining the Organization- the object of an organization is to maintain its health and standing in the government because they feel it is vital to the national interests. To do this they generally present options and gather information that is in the interests of their organization and will resist any other organization to take away their power and influence.
o Organizational and Personal Influence- institutions will often distort information and options to improve their influence in the executive. Edwards claims that personnel within the organizations often believe that they are the most knowledgeable and guided on the subject and therefore desire to posses the primary influence over issues concerning their area of expertise.
o Bureaucratic Structure- Hierarchy: most bureaucracies are organized this way, with information and responsibilities flowing from top to bottom. Decentralization: even in a hierarchical executive branch, information can’t be centralized. Standard Operating Procedures: these are uniform means of gathering and processing information in a methodical way.

I Influences on Presidential Decision Making
A Previous Commitments

Presidents have severe constraints, regardless of approach

Institutional capability restrictions

diverse obligations

very rarely can predict upcoming and new issues

deadlines may make it necessary to make decision without time to fully study

less controversial parts of policies get little attention

• no common way to ideally organize for every president
• reflects the personality of both the incumbent and the current president
• may use several styles of decision making at one time
• two most common: hierarchical and spokes of the wheel
• need staff to give time and info to focus on issue – screen issues

• Written vs. Face-to-Face
• Nixon and Carter liked pros and cons written down
• Eisenhower, Kennedy, Bush, Clinton use open settings with advisors
• Reagan talked to small number of aides
• written saves time and give more access to research, but it may be distorted
• face to face allows ideas to be fleshed out, but limits the number of topics heard

• president cannot depend on one channel of information, needs diversity of views
• will also force larger number of issues to the top
• but can increase staff conflict
• "devils advocate" scheme works, but difficult when by not true opponent

• presidents must ensure that all options are investigated thoroughly
• consequences of acting without all info: Clinton on homosexual ban

• aides find it difficult to disagree due to strong, dynamic personality
• Aides are dependent on the president for their job

• reluctance to disagree enforced by president who punish for disagree
• strong presidents may tell aides what advice to give
• may place loyalty over competence in decision making

• conformist thinking that results from intensely involved decision making group

• aides fight each other for access to president and power
• time wasted on making others look bad

• narrowing of viewpoints may result from conforming with surroundings

• conceptions of job influence may determine involvement in decision making

E Bureaucratic Politics and Decision Making

• selective recruitment serves to develop homogenous attitudes
• agencies prefer like-minded people
• each organization also focuses only on what it needs

• policy makers only gather information that advocates their view - limits info
• there is a dominant view of an organizations mission and attitude
• organizations will vigorously resist efforts of opposing groups

• in the pursuit of power by individuals, the process of researching info is distorted
• deference to expertise has become the most efficient way of resolving conflicts
• organizations seek to prevent opposing ideas from their experts

- Qualifications for Office- The founders only listed three requirements for qualification into office: 1. the president must be a natural-born citizen 2. He must be a resident in the U.S. for at least 14 years. 3. He must be at least 35 years old. They did this with the idea that the presidency was a position that any citizen of the US could aspire to achieve.
- Social and Political Background- The way a president runs his administration is reflective of his personality. Typically presidents are men from high social standing, from elevated families, elite educational institutions, and successful professional careers. These circumstances can often enhance a president’s standing in the political community, but can hinder their appeal to the average American.
- Physical Attributes and General Health- a president’s ability to use emotion in his favor is a huge attribute, but it can easily work against him. Their general health is a source of major concern in facing large and important decisions every day. Health problems are often underplayed.
- Psychological Orientation- How does personality affect the presidency? There are two types of studies that focus on the relationship between personality and performance.

1. Psychobiography, which seeks to explain presidential behavior on the basis of a comprehensive psychological analysis of a president’s life. 2.  how does personality affect seeking the presidency, structuring and staffing it, and then exercising power within it—how personality shapes, motivates, activates, and conditions responses, and influences judgments? The influence of character, worldviews, and style embody a candidate.

o Impact of Worldviews- ‘Beliefs are shaped by how individuals view themselves and others within their environment’. Presidents bring a belief structure (in regards to policy, issues, ect) when they enter office. These beliefs undoubtedly effect policy and can also cause dysfunction. They may affect a president’s ability to identify problems, determine objectives of policy, and provide options and alternative solutions to problems.
o Managing Inconsistency- Edwards suggests a few ways in which presidents approach inconsistency in policy and actions: First, attach negative consequences to alternatives. Second, employ selective information implying that a particular situation could not possible occur or would definitely occur. Third, engage in ‘wishful thinking’. Fourth, reasoning by analogy. Fifth, discredit the source of information and options. Sixth, avoid information.

Social and Political Background
- American Presidents have been advantaged by virtue of their wealth, the professional
positions they have held, and the personal contacts they have made.
- Born into families of high social status and considersable economic means ( higher educationa
and professional opportunities)
- eight of our presidents were the product of only four  families
- Only Calvin Collidge, Richard Nixon, and Ronald Reagan might be said to have suffered from
poverty in their youths
- Education has been used as a springboard for professional careers that have culminated in
public service

Physical Attributes and General Health
- Information about the medical pathologies of presidents has been extremely limited
- Presidents and their advisors want to prevent precipitous public relations to an illness or injury
to the president and  desire to maintain continuity of policy both within the government and
between it and other governments.
- Given th magnitude of their task and the stress they are under, presidents need excellent and
continuous medical care
- Studies have shown that presidents who served more than four years in office have had more
serious health problems and shorter life spans than those who completed on term or less
- The duties and responsibility of the office also aggrevate the ageing process

Psychological Orientation
 Psychobiograph- seek to explain presidential behavior on the basis of a comprehensive
psychological analysis of a presidnet's life

Presidential Character
    Barber's Presonality Traits
        -character, style, worldviews
Presidential Character Types
    *Active Positive
    *Active Negative
    *Passive Positive
    *Passive Negative

Cognitive Dimensions
    - Impacto of Worldview
        * identifying problems           * determining objectives
        * raising options                   *  managing inconsistency
    - Managing Inconsistency
        * inference mechanisms

Presidential Style
- Presidnet set the tone for the white house
- Some presidnets feel the need to dominate relationships with their subordinates
- some presidents need to operate in a very protective environment

White House Staff  Relationships
- The work is arduous and the hours, extensive
- Aids usually arrive before the president and depart after he leaves (60-80 standard week)

Conclusion
- Social background, physical well-being, presidnetial character, cognitive views, and personal
style and staff interaction all condition the president  performance in office
- If socialization, physical condition, and psycholigical orientation- which includes character,
worldviews, and style- affect behavior, then they must hve a impacto on the president's capacity to lead
- In conclusion is that leadership is not only a consequence of who the leader but of how that
leader interacts with others in the changing social economic, and political milieu of the presidency
 
 
 

- Lack of Attention to Implementation: Often a low priority in administrations, there are too many other responsibilities for presidents to worry about and implementation is not one of their strengths or political interests. Edwards claims that there are little incentives for a president to worry about implementation, but as economic and social issues become front-runners of policy again the public might see a change in that area.
- Communication of Presidential Decisions:

o Transmission- The decision has been made and an order to implement it has been issued. Communication errors occur often and transmission often does not occur successfully. There are many things that effect transmission—vagueness in orders, orders given out of anger or without proper consultation, the decentralized nature of the implementation of a public policy (it goes through to many people, or the president won’t communicate directly to subordinates).
o Clarity- implementation directives must be clear, if not implementers can take leeway to give new meaning to policies. This is due to the complexity of policy making, the difficulty in reaching consensus, starting up a new program, often the legislature wants them vague, and strict guidelines.
o Consistency- inconsistency also allows implementers more personal discretion in regards to policy interpretation and implementation. This spans from the issues named above and the executives desire to please multiple interests.

o Money- the lack of money hinders the executive’s ability to implement policy.
o Staff- Edwards claims this is a principal source of implementation failure, claiming that there are too few, qualified personnel to do an effective job. This creates issues in monitoring, updating, and obtaining data, in addition, expertise and physical numbers further hinder this resource.
o Authority- the president actually has very little direct authority over the executive branch operation and sometimes staff lacks the authority or authorization to implement policy.
o Facilities and Equipment-‘without the necessary buildings, equipment, supplies, and even green space, implementation will not succeed.’ Equipment is old and scarce.

o White House Distrust- centered on the idea that the bureaucracy is not a neutral instrument. Edwards states that the executive believe officials and the agencies they represent have personal interests and are working to advance and protect those, instead of viewing issues from the president’s perspective. If a specific agencies interest do not align with those of the presidency, then they are more likely to use their own discretion. This often leads to miscommunication and non-appliance to presidential mandate, as well as tension between organizations and the executive.
o Bureaucratic Responsiveness to the President- Though there is tension between the two groups, there is more cooperation with the president’s wishes than not, even in areas of political controversy. This occurs in what Edwards calls the ‘cycle of accommodation’, in which career civil servants accommodated the needs and requests of the president.
o Staffing the Bureaucracy- replacing personnel who resist policy implementation with those who will cooperate is an effective way to fix the problem. The executive can do this by appointment. (Executive Schedule appointees, non career senior executives, Schedule C employees)
o Limiting Discretion-‘The government relies heavily on rules to limit the discretion of implementers’. There are several ways in which the executive constrains bureaucratic discretion, including regulations, congressional testimony, limiting agency budgets, and establishing process restrictions. Unfortunately, this often furthers the difficulty in implementation.

o Standard Operating Procedures- these are routines that enable public officials to make numerous everyday decisions. They bring uniformity and structure to procedures and make personnel interchangeable. But, in some cases they are inappropriate and even obstacles. They hinder implementation by inhibiting change—because they are made for specific circumstances.
o Fragmentation- ‘the dispersion of responsibility for a policy area among several organizational units.’ Too many agencies dealing with the same issues—this creates confusion, a lack of coordination, and ineffectiveness and hinders the implementation process.

lack of attention—presidents face many obligations, which implementing policy is only one

lack of experience in administration on large scale

foreign affairs are always a top priority

incentives to invest time in implementation are few

presidents usually receive little credit

Transmission-before decision can be implemented, subordinates must be aware that the decision has been made and an order to implement it has been issued

• sometimes aids and other officials ignore presidential directives which they disagree with
• implementers have discretion in implementation-orders aren’t always specific
• the more decentralized the implementation , the less likely it is to be transmitted accurately
• Clarity-must not only be received, but clear as well
• Complexity of policy making
• Difficulty in reaching consensus on policy goals
• Problems of starting up new programs
• Consistency
• The complexity of public policies, the difficulties in starting up new programs, and the multiple objectives of many policies all contribute to inconsistency

Money-sometimes the problem the president faces in implementation is lack of money

Staff

Insufficient staff is especially critical to implementation when the policy involved imposes unwelcome constraints on people

Lack of staff makes compliance data hard to receive

Sometimes the necessary personnel are very difficult to hire

Needed staff may not exist

Authority

Formal authority is mistaken for effective authority

The desire for self-preservation keeps many of the president’s agencies from withdrawing funds

Lack of authority of public officials is small compared to the lack of authority for in the private sector

Facilities and Equipment

Frequently a shortage of sophisticated equipment

Congress often prefers to spread resources over many policies rather than to fund fewer programs adequately

how they exercise the discretion in the implementation depends on their dispositions about the policies and rules they administer

implementers may oppose policy-opposition can prevent a policy option from even being tried

defeat immediate goals

cooperation between agencies is lost due to differences in viewpoints

Staffing the bureaucracy

Appointments-president appoints less than 1 percent of appointees under the executive branch and are constrained politically

Civil Service-if they don’t carry out implementation then it’s hard for president to dismiss of them

Incentives-manipulation of incentives

Standard Operation Procedures

• Routines that enable public officials to make numerous everyday decisions
• Benefit in saving time
• SOPs bring uniformity to organizations
• SOPs may hinder policy implementation by inhibiting change because they are designed for typical situations
• Fragmentation
• The dispersion of responsibility for a policy area among several organizational units
• Dispersion responsibility also disperses "turf"
• Implies diffusion of responsibility which makes coordination difficult

• presidents usually too busy to follow-up
• they lack systematic information about performance
• increasing personal staff is technique of follow-up
• increasing number of management layers in government can also hamper follow-up

- Formal Legislative Powers: Presidents play a central role in the legislative process, expected to formulate and promote specific policies. Much of this happens within the executive branch, and the president is given a broad scope of legislative authority though only four responsibilities were laid out by Article II ( State of the Union, recommend necessary and expedient legislation, summon Congress into special session, and veto power). Many presidents have used their legislative power to enhance their congressional influence. Allowances in their responsibilities have grown too—recommending legislation has become agenda-setting, State of the Union to promote policy, though calling special sessions has fallen into disuse.
- Sources of Conflict Between the Executive and Legislative Branches:

o Internal Structures- The executive branch is organized in a hierarchical manner with the president influenced by many interests and applying them to policy, while the houses of Congress are highly decentralized. This creates conflict between the two organizations. Congress has a difficult time in assessing all aspects of an issue because members act as individuals, not as a complete body-information is not shared, communication is minimal, and the ability to deal with many issues at once, unlike the executive with the president at the head claiming responsibility for all actions.
o Information and Expertise- ‘The different internal structures of the president and Congress influence the amount and quality of the information available to them for decision making, further encouraging the two branches to see issues from different perspectives.’
o Time Perspectives- Congress has a longer time period in which to accomplish goals, while the President works within a limited frame, encouraging the two organizations to process legislation at different speeds.

o Party Support of the President- members of the president’s party in the house and senate are the core of his support system in the legislature and with out them the executive will find it almost impossible to pass policy. Legislative support is reflective of the executive branch as well, with their voting tendencies changing according to who is in office.
o Leading the Party- Edwards claims that a representative is more likely to vote in favor of the executive because his standing in the public is their opportunity at reelection. The president is also the standing leader of the party; therefore the representative’s loyalties should lie with the executive.

o Public Approval- Edwards states that if the president has the public’s support, then he is more likely to succeed in the legislature, but it also works in the opposite way. If a president doesn’t have the support of the people, then representatives have less of a reason to support their policies if they want reelection.
o Mandates- the presidential election and its results also help the executive work with the legislature. If a candidate was elected on certain issues, than the president will have more success in passing policies related to those issues. ‘Moreover, concerns for both representation and political survival will encourage members of Congress to support the president if they feel the people have spoken’.

o Congressional Liaison- used to influence congressional support of legislation, the executive engages in cooperation through the congressional liaison staff, which represents presidential interests in the houses and on the Hill.
o Personal Appeals- this technique is used to gain votes in the houses by the president’s active and personal appeal for votes. Edwards argues that this tactic must be used selectively and only on legislation important and vital to the executive, as its effectiveness will declined used too often.
o Bargaining- the idea of ‘buying’ votes in the houses. These occur often and only on an individual basis, and usually allot for special requests and allowances within future presidential policy and legislation.
o Services of Amenities- the idea of using favors to create a ‘voting debt’ to the executive. This usually occurs within the president’s party.
o Pressure- This is a more aggressive means of acquiring legislative support in which the president reminds Congress of its power and influence in Washington.
o Consultation- Consulting members of Congress on legislation before it is brought to the Hill creates an advantage for the executive. It allows for representatives to feel involved and engaged in the process, furthering the probability of their support.
o Setting Priorities-Setting an agenda of presidential priorities allows Congress time to evaluate and digest policy. This also allows the executive to lobby, spread out policy amongst several committees, and focus attention a set group of legislation.
o Moving Quickly- ‘The president must move quickly to exploit the honeymoon atmosphere that typically characterizes the early months of a new administration.’
o Structuring Choice- choosing issues for policy that the president is public supported on helps it gain Congressional support as well. ‘Portraying policies in terms of criteria on which there is a consensus, and playing down divisive issues, are often at the core of efforts to structure choices for Congress.’
o The Context of Influence- the nature of Congress itself-a bipartisan, assertive group—makes the president’s ability to influence them difficult. This often leads to stalemate.
o The Impact of Legislative Skills- ‘ Presidential legislative skills must compete, as does public support, with other, more stable factors that affect voting in Congress, including party, ideology, personal views and commitments on specific policies, and constituency interests.’ Edwards argues that the stubborn nature of Congress is in itself an issue, and executives must be resourceful and influential in their legislative skills.