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Great Decisions | AL World Affairs Council Notes on International Terrorism and Response. World Book Encyclopedia, "Terrorism" (excerpts.) compiled from web or email for the benefit of students. comppiled by Jeremy Lewis; revised on 20 Sep. 2005. |
Individuals may commit terrorist acts, but terrorism is usually the work of organized networks or groups. Many groups operate within a single nation or region. Others have branches and operations in many countries. Because terrorists generally cannot match the strength of conventional military forces, they often rely on guerrilla warfare. Guerrilla warfare involves attacks by roving bands of fighters who torment the enemy with ambushes, bombings, sudden raids, and other hit-and-run tactics. The fighters blend in with ordinary citizens, strike suddenly, and try to avoid capture.
In addition to the death and destruction caused by the attacks themselves, terrorists seek to create panic and fear throughout the general population. They may try to cripple the economy by destroying bridges, dams, telephone networks, or other essential structures or services. Many terrorists hope that people who observe the attacks will lose their sense of security and their confidence in the existing government or political system.
All terrorist acts are crimes under international law. Many countries fight terrorism by gathering intelligence (information); by increasing security at airports, government buildings, and other likely targets; and by working together with international organizations and with other nations facing terrorist threats. Some countries train special military and law enforcement units to confront terrorist situations. Efforts to prevent terrorism are called counterterrorism.
Features of terrorism
Terrorist groups and individuals generally attack people who oppose their causes, or buildings and places that symbolize such opposition. Common victims of kidnappings and assassinations include business executives, diplomats, judges, police, and political leaders. Some terrorists attack churches, mosques, synagogues, and other places of worship. Others target airplanes, buses, trains, and nightclubs. Terrorists often choose targets certain to attract media coverage. Such targets include government buildings, national monuments and landmarks, and skyscrapers.
Terrorist methods. Terrorists seek to create instability and alarm through a number of methods. Traditional methods include bombings, assassinations, kidnappings, and hijackings. Newer threats include computer-based terrorism and weapons of mass destruction—that is, biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons.
Bombings make up about half of all terrorist acts. Bombs may be placed in automobiles, backpacks, garbage cans, suitcases, or elsewhere. Many bombings involve cars or trucks packed with explosives and parked next to a building or other target. Terrorists may also try to smuggle concealed bombs onto airplanes or into crowded sports arenas or concert halls. In some cases, a bomber may strap explosives to his or her own body and detonate them on a bus or in a crowded area. Such bombings are commonly called suicide bombings, because the terrorist takes his or her own life while conducting the attack.
Assassinations and kidnappings. Terrorists may seek to create alarm by assassinating government officials or other prominent individuals. Terrorists may also kidnap individuals and hold them hostage until certain demands are met. In some cases, terrorists target travelers from other countries in an attempt to discourage others from visiting.
Hijackings. Some terrorists hijack, or seize control of, airplanes, buses, or other vehicles. They typically use weapons or bomb threats to gain control. Once in control, hijackers may take passengers as hostages and threaten to kill the passengers if their demands are not met. In some cases, hijackers may threaten to blow up an airplane, or they may intentionally crash a plane into a target. Such hijackings are especially dangerous because planes loaded with fuel can become "flying bombs" capable of causing great destruction.
Biological attacks involve the intentional spreading of harmful bacteria, viruses, and toxins (poisons). The use of biological agents (substances) to inflict harm is sometimes called germ warfare or bioterrorism. Bioterrorists may seek to contaminate food or water supplies; to distribute toxins, such as ricin; or to spread dangerous diseases, such as anthrax or smallpox. They may put harmful bacteria in restaurant salad bars or send contaminated items through the mail. However, many biological weapons are difficult for terrorists to prepare and use effectively.
Chemical attacks involve the intentional release of toxic chemicals. Some chemical agents affect the central nervous system and can cause paralysis or death. Others can burn or damage the skin, eyes, nose, throat, or lungs. Dangerous chemical agents include mustard gas, a blistering agent that causes burns and blindness; hydrogen cyanide, a poisonous gas sometimes used to execute condemned criminals; and sarin, a deadly nerve gas. Terrorists may attempt to buy, steal, or manufacture chemical weapons and then disperse them in crowded areas. However, many chemical weapons are difficult for terrorists to prepare and use.
Nuclear attacks. Governments have long sought to keep nuclear materials out of the hands of terrorist organizations. As a result, no nuclear terrorist attack has yet occurred. However, counterterrorism experts have studied how terrorists might potentially use nuclear weapons or radioactive materials to conduct attacks.
Terrorist groups might seek to acquire nuclear devices from an underground weapons supplier or from a government that has such devices. Alternatively, terrorists might try to obtain radioactive materials—such as weapons-grade plutonium or uranium—and manufacture their own weapons. If terrorists are unable to acquire or build nuclear weapons, they might instead try to cause explosions at existing nuclear facilities. Terrorists might also bundle radioactive materials with conventional explosives to create radiological dispersion devices. Such devices—sometimes called "dirty bombs"—could give off invisible radiation capable of causing sickness or death. The radioactive contamination could keep people out of a vital area, such as a downtown business section, for months or even years.
Computer-based terrorism, also called cyberterrorism, involves the sabotage of computer information systems. Cyberterrorists may design and circulate computer viruses, which can disrupt computer operations and destroy data. Cyberterrorists may also seek to steal or alter sensitive or valuable information, or to attack systems that provide important services.
Other forms of terrorism. Terrorists may use any other form of violence or threats of violence to create fear and alarm. Some governments use terrorist methods-such as torture and murder-to intimidate their opposition and increase their power. The use of such methods by oppressive governments is called state terrorism or state-conducted terrorism. War crimes, genocide, and other international violations may also be considered acts of terror.
Terrorist organizations. Individuals may carry out terrorist acts—such as bombings or the distribution of computer viruses—without assistance from others. However, most terrorists are associated with specific movements or organized groups. Terrorist organizations vary greatly in terms of size and structure. Most groups are small and focus on activities within their own nation or region. Other groups, however, have international networks that carry out attacks throughout the world. One of the largest global terror groups is al-Qa'ida, which seeks to promote the goals of Islamic extremists.
Most terrorist organizations have a leader or group of leaders who develop strategies and direct operations. Active terrorists within the organization then carry out the plans. Many terrorist organizations consist of small groups called cells. Terrorist cells may receive specific instructions from leaders, or they may plan their own activities based on the organization's central goals. Terrorist groups generally take great efforts to hide the identities of group members, the locations of cells, and their channels of communication. Typically, only one member of each cell knows how to contact the larger organization. As a result, the larger group may remain safe even if a cell is discovered and destroyed. The secrecy and complexity of the cell structure makes it difficult for governments to gather information about terrorist groups.
Sources of funding for terrorist groups are usually carefully concealed. Some governments secretly support or sponsor terrorist groups by providing weapons, training, and money. Some terrorist groups raise money through criminal activities such as theft or the sale of illegal drugs. In some cases, a group posing as a social service organization may secretly direct donations, without the donors' knowledge, toward terrorist causes.
Fighting terrorism
Counterterrorism efforts involve numerous activities. Governments gather and evaluate information about suspected terrorists and terrorist groups. They identify potential terrorist threats and develop a wide variety of security measures and emergency procedures. Many governments refuse to negotiate with terrorists or with nations that support terrorists. National security services, such as the United States Department of Homeland Security and the United Kingdom's Security Service (MI5), lead advanced counterterrorism efforts. They receive assistance from intelligence services, such as Israel's Mossad, the United Kingdom's Secret Intelligence Service (MI6), and the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). International organizations, such as the United Nations (UN) and Interpol, help nations work together for the prevention of terrorism.
Intelligence efforts. National governments, international organizations, police departments, and specialized intelligence services collect, share, and analyze information relating to terrorism. Such efforts can help prevent attacks by identifying terrorist suspects and by detecting terrorist plots while they are being planned.
Many intelligence and law enforcement agencies use electronic surveillance to monitor suspected terrorists and to intercept their communication. Wiretapping is the interception of telephone conversations by a listening device connected to a telephone wire or placed nearby. Other forms of surveillance include special aircraft and artificial satellites that can produce detailed images of suspected terrorist bases or camps.
Governments may work with agents from foreign countries or send undercover
agents to obtain information from within a terrorist group. Governments
may also receive valuable information by questioning detained terrorists
and by searching areas where terrorists have lived or gathered. In some
cases, governments can examine financial records and trace the funding
of terrorist organizations. They may order banks to freeze (make unusable)
the assets of terrorists or of individuals or groups believed to be contributing
to terrorist activity.
Print "Intelligence efforts" subsection
Security measures. Most governments work to protect, or "harden," potential terrorist targets, such as airports and airplanes, large public gatherings, and government buildings. Target-hardening efforts typically involve careful security systems and procedures and the work of trained security personnel.
Thorough security at airports and on airplanes can decrease the likelihood of hijackings and other attacks. People who travel on airplanes must pass through multiple airport checkpoints. Guards scan or search checked baggage and carry-on items, and they may frisk (search) passengers before letting them board the plane. Security measures on the airplane itself may include reinforced cockpit doors and armed air marshals.
Many structures, especially skyscrapers and government buildings, have physical barriers to keep car or truck bombs from getting near. Also, many buildings have metal detectors or other security checkpoints to search for dangerous items and to prevent unauthorized people from entering. Police officers may be assigned to guard bridges, tunnels, or monuments believed at risk. At some crowded events, cameras scan people's faces and attempt to match them with photos of suspected terrorists in a computer database.
The risk of cyberterrorism can be reduced by computer security measures, such as antivirus programs and electronic barriers called firewalls. As technology improves, new target-hardening methods will continue to emerge.
The protection of key sites is an essential part of counterterrorism. However, in many cases, target hardening may lead to target displacement—that is, it may cause terrorists to shift their plans to different sites that are not as well protected. No system of protection can fully safeguard every building, bridge, and tunnel. A site with relatively little protection is sometimes called a "soft" target.
Diplomatic, economic, and military pressure. Because of the global reach of terrorist activity, the cooperation of organizations and governments from various countries is an essential element of counterterrorism. The UN and other international bodies help promote this cooperation. Numerous treaties and international agreements have sought to address terrorist activity. For example, extradition treaties allow people linked to terrorism in one country to be arrested in a different country and deported for trial in the country where an attack took place. Such treaties make it difficult for terrorists to escape criminal charges.
The international community may isolate or punish nations that support terrorism. Governments may impose economic sanctions on nations that support terrorism. In other words, they may limit or end economic relations with the country until it changes its policies. If sanctions and diplomatic pressure fail, countries may launch military strikes against terrorist bases and camps or against countries that sponsor terrorism.
Counterterrorism and civil rights. A government's ability to fight terrorism depends largely on its ability to intercept communication to and from suspected terrorists, to search individuals for weapons and dangerous materials, and to investigate and detain suspects. However, many of these actions may conflict with the basic rights and freedoms associated with democracy. A major challenge facing governments today is the need to provide effective counterterrorism while still respecting individuals' privacy and civil rights. Government officials, legal scholars, and civil rights activists often disagree over how best to balance the two interests.
History of terrorism
The beginnings of terrorist violence closely followed the spread of
early civilization. From ancient times to the present, individuals, rebel
groups, and governments have used cruelty and force to eliminate enemies,
to spread fear and panic, and to achieve political, religious, and other
ideological goals.
Early terrorism. The empire builders of ancient times often maintained control over conquered peoples through brutality and fear. In 71 B.C., for instance, the Roman general Crassus crushed a revolt led by the gladiator Spartacus. Crassus then publicly crucified the captured rebels to warn others of the consequences of revolt. Some groups used terrorist methods to resist their rulers. For instance, a Jewish group called the Sicarii waged violent campaigns against the Romans from about A.D. 6 to 73.
Starting in the 800's, Japanese ninja, members of a secret organization of peasant families, spread terror through sabotage, assassination, and kidnapping. Ninja were masters at various forms of armed and unarmed combat, including the use of disguises and poisons. In the 1100's, a secret society called assassins or hashshashin (hemp-eaters) carried out violent campaigns in Persia (now Iran) and Asia Minor (now part of Turkey). They smoked a drug called hashish, made from the hemp plant, and killed their enemies while under its influence. In the 1300's and 1400's, peasant uprisings in Europe produced widespread violence, much of which would now be considered terrorist in nature.
The beginnings of modern terrorism. The word terrorism first appeared during the French Revolution (1789-1799). Some of the revolutionaries who seized power adopted a policy of violence against people they considered enemies of the revolution. The revolutionary government executed around 40,000 people. Because of the number of executions and the fear that they produced, the period of rule by the revolutionaries became known as the Reign of Terror. By the early 1800's, terrorism had become a fixture of rebellion and conflict throughout the world.
In the 1930's, the dictators Adolf Hitler of Germany, Benito Mussolini of Italy, and Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union used terrorist tactics to discourage opposition to their governments. From 1973 to 1990, General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte controlled Chile as a military dictator. During his rule, more than 3,000 Chileans disappeared or were murdered, and many more were tortured. Many authoritarian governments continue to use state terrorism today to frighten and control the population.
Terrorist groups and movements have long used violence to pursue their goals. An American group, the Ku Klux Klan, has used terrorism to oppose the advancement of African Americans, Jews, and other minority groups since the late 1800's. In Northern Ireland, Roman Catholic extremists have used terrorism in efforts to end British rule and to unite Northern Ireland with the Republic of Ireland. At the same time, Protestant extremists have used similar methods to demand the continuation of British rule.
In Spain's Basque region, a group called Euskadi ta Askatasuna (Basque Homeland and Freedom), abbreviated ETA, has used violence to push for the creation of an independent Basque state. In Chechnya, rebel groups have used terrorism in an attempt to win independence from Russia. Chechen groups have taken hostages and conducted suicide bombings against Russian targets.
Before the independence of Israel in 1948, a Jewish group called Irgun Zvai Leumi (National Military Organization) used terror to speed the end of British rule in Palestine and create a Jewish homeland. Since 1960, Palestinian groups, including Hamas and Islamic Jihad of Palestine, have carried out campaigns of terrorism aimed at establishing an independent Palestinian state. Such groups have conducted numerous attacks—including a wave of suicide bombings in the early 2000's—against Israel. Israel has responded with military strikes that have taken civilian lives.
During the 1960's and 1970's, several terrorist groups sought the destruction of the political and economic systems in their home countries and the development of new systems. These groups included the Red Brigades in Italy, the Red Army Faction (also known as the Baader-Meinhof Gang) in West Germany, and the Weather Underground in the United States. Since the 1980's, Peru has faced attacks by leftist terrorist groups called Shining Path and the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement.
Many terrorists have had religious motives rather than political ones. In 1995, members of a Japanese religious cult released the nerve gas sarin into the Tokyo subway system, killing 12 people and injuring thousands. In the United States and other countries, extremists opposed to abortion have bombed and burned down clinics and murdered doctors who performed abortions. People who strongly oppose abortion generally do so because of religious beliefs.
Some groups in the United States and other countries have used terrorism to promote animal rights and other causes relating to nature and the environment. Such groups—including the Earth Liberation Front and the Animal Liberation Front—have attacked lumber companies and laboratories that conduct research on animals. Terrorism for nature-related causes is often called ecoterrorism.
Individuals with unusual or unclear agendas have also committed acts of terror. From 1978 to 1995, an American known as the Unabomber sent bombs through the mail. Because he disliked modern industrial civilization, he targeted scientists and engineers in the computer industry and other high-technology fields. The Unabomber, identified as Theodore J. Kaczynski, was convicted in 1998. In 1995, a terrorist bombing destroyed the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, killing 168 people. Two Americans, Timothy J. McVeigh and Terry L. Nichols, were convicted for their roles in the attack. McVeigh and Nichols believed that actions of the U.S. government had deprived citizens of their freedom.
The changing face of terrorism. In the late 1900's, many terrorist groups began forming networks and operating on an increasingly global scale. Some of these groups, particularly in the Middle East, held a deep hatred for the United States and for Western countries in general. Concerns that terrorists might obtain weapons of mass destruction increased dramatically.
In 1993, a bomb exploded in the parking garage of the World Trade Center in New York City. A federal court convicted four men, including two Palestinians and an Egyptian cleric, of planning the bombing. In 1998, terrorists bombed U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania. American officials linked the bombings to Osama bin Laden, a Saudi-born millionaire and Islamic extremist. Bin Laden's group, al-Qa'ida, has been suspected in numerous other attacks, including the bombing of the U.S. Navy warship Cole in Yemen in 2000. Terrorists who claimed links to al-Qa'ida conducted a series of train bombings in Madrid, Spain, in 2004.
The September 11 terrorist attacks. On Sept. 11, 2001, about 3,000 people died as a result of the worst terrorist attack in U.S. history. Qa'ida hijackers seized two commercial airplanes and deliberately crashed them into the two 110-story towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. Less than an hour later, another hijacked plane crashed into the Pentagon Building just outside Washington, D.C. Shortly after that, a fourth hijacked airplane crashed into a rural area in Somerset County, Pennsylvania.
In response to the September 11 attacks—commonly known as 9/11—U.S. President George W. Bush called for a worldwide campaign against international terrorist networks. He announced that the campaign would involve tightened security, widespread intelligence efforts, economic restrictions, and military action. He declared that he would target terrorist organizations and any governments that supported them. Bush's antiterrorism effort is commonly called the "war on terrorism" or the “war on terror.”
At the time of the attacks, bin Laden and al-Qa'ida were being protected by the Taliban, a militant Islamic group that controlled the government of Afghanistan. Military strikes led by the United States caused the Taliban to fall from power in Afghanistan in December 2001. Numerous Qa'ida members and officers were captured or killed. However, bin Laden was not found.
Since the September 11 attacks, counterterrorism has become a top priority for governments throughout the world. In October 2001, the U.S. Congress passed the USA Patriot Act, which granted government authorities greater power to conduct searches, use wiretaps, and detain and question suspects. Other nations, including India and the United Kingdom, introduced similar antiterrorism measures.
In 2002, the U.S. Congress established the Department of Homeland Security,
a new executive department devoted primarily to fighting terrorism. In
2004, Congress passed the Intelligence Reform and Terrorist Prevention
Act. The act reorganized the government's intelligence community and introduced
additional measures to detect, investigate, and prevent terrorist activity.
Print "The September 11 terrorist attacks" subsection
Recent developments. In March 2003, the United States led a military campaign against the Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein. The Bush administration claimed that Hussein supported terrorist organizations and could potentially supply such organizations with weapons of mass destruction. The invasion caused the fall of Hussein's government in early April. In the following months, a number of terrorist attacks occurred throughout Iraq. United States officials suspected that the attacks were the work of Iraqi groups opposed to the U.S.-led invasion, of Hussein's supporters and allies, or of al-Qa'ida and other terrorist groups.
On July 7, 2005, a series of suicide bombings in London killed more
than 50 people and injured hundreds of others. Bombs exploded on three
subway trains and one bus. Four additional bombings were attempted in London
on July 21, but none of the bombs exploded. Authorities arrested a number
of suspects in connection with the July 21 plot.