Huntingdon College | Political Science | Courses |  |

Chap. 01: Policy Analysis (2002)
Chap. 02: Models of Politics (2000)
Chap. 03 [14]: Policymaking Process (2000)
Chap. 04: Criminal Justice (2000)
Chap. 05: Health and Welfare (2000)
Chap. 06: Education (2000)
Chap. 07 [09]: Economic Policy  (2000, 2002)
Chap. 08 [10]: Tax Policy (2000 -- two versions)
Chap. 09 [11]: International Trade and Immigration (2000)
Chap. 10 [07]: Environmental Policy (2000)
Chap. 11 [03]: Civil Rights: Elite and Mass Interaction (2000)
Chap. 12 [13]: American Federalism
Chap. 13 [08]: Defense Policy (2002)
Chap. 14 [new]:Homeland Security: Terrorism  NEW, 2005, 11e.
Chap. 15 [14]: Policy Evaluation (2002, 2000)

Policy-public policy is whatever government chooses to do or not to do/ a projected program of goals, values and practices.

 -today people expect government to do a great many things for them
 -understanding the causes and consequences of policy decisions improves our knowledge of society
 -policy studies helps us learn about the linkage between social and economic conditions in society
 -policy studies incorporate the ideas and methods of economics, sociology, anthropology, psycology, history, law and public
administration
 -public policy can be studied for political purposes to ensure that the nation adopts the "right" policies to achieve the "right" goals
 -policy analysis is finding out what governments do, why they do it and what difference, if any it makes
 -learning about the consequences of public policy is often referred to as policy evaluation

1. a concern with explanation rather than presumption
2. a rigorous search of the causes and consequences of public policy
3. an effort to develop test general propositions about the causes and consequences of public policy and to accumulate reliable

  -questionable that policy analysis can ever "solve" America's problems
  -policy analysis cannot offer solutions to problems when there is no general agreement on what the problems are
  -it cannot solve value conflicts
  -policy analysis is one activity for which there can be no fixed programs

1. Models of Politics - used to simplify, identify certain aspects, understand and explain policies

A. Institutional Model

1. Describe specific institutions and certain aspects of those institutions

• Also analyze the effect these aspects have on policy outputs

• Follows these steps

• Shows how decisions are made, and how they should be made
• Helps to understand activities involved in policy-making

• Interaction among groups is the central aspect of politics
• People come together through common interests
• Public policy is the equilibrium reached in a group struggle, which is political activity
• Parties are viewed as coalitions of groups

• People are apatheitc and ill-informed, therefore elite shapes mass opinion
• Implies public policy does not truly reflect the wants to the people as much as the elites
• Elitism views masses as passive and easily manipulated

• "achieves maximum social gain"
• Policy should never have costs that exceed gain
• Must know societies values, all alternatives, and the consequences of the alternatives

• Views public policy as a continuation of past gov’t activities with only small modifications
• conservative because it considers existing policy as a base, and new programs are ignored
• Believe that policies that are in effect has been proven, why alter what has proven effective

• Study of rational decisions where one choice depends on the outcome of another choice
• An abstract and deductive model of policy making
• More an analytic tool than a practical guide

• The economic study of nonmarket decision making
• Recognizes gov’t must perform certain functions that market is unable to handle
• Seen in elections, candidates are more concerned with winning than advancing principles

• Political system is a group of interrelated structures that allocate values for a society
• Sees public policy as an output of the political system
• By arrangin settlements, demands are transformed into output (policies)

1. Order and simplify reality
2. Identify what is significant
3. Congruent with reality
4. Provide meaningful communication
5. Direct inquiry and research
6. Suggest explanations

  "Civil Rights policy is a response of a national elite to conditions affecting a minority of Americans rather than a response of
national to majority sentiments."
Mass Opinion Differences

     Most whites believe that there is little discrimination toward blacks
     Blacks believe that they are not treated equally in employment, housing, etc.
     White majority opinion only changed after civil rights policy has been implemented
     Poor, uneducated whites posses the least favorable attitudes toward blacks
     Well educated, successful whites are more concerned with discrimination and more eager to socialize with blacks
     A majority of whites believe we have enough regulations against discrimination
     Civil Rights policy reflects the views of Congress, the president and the Supreme Court
          exp.: 14th Amendment
          exp.: Civil Rights Act of 1875, passed by Congress but declared unconstitutional in 1883

Mass Resistance to Desegregation

     The branches of government get involved to enforce civil rights policy
          exp.: Civil Rights Act of 1964 - COngress threatens segregated school, with loss of federal financial assistance
          exp.: 1957 - President Eisenhower uses military force to integrate Little Rock's Central High School

Busing

     Suppose to end racial isolation in public schools
     Mass reaction - white children sent to private school, by parents
     End result - schools end up more segregated than before

Civil Rights Movement

     Supported equality of opportunity
          Ability to be able to develop one's talents and abilities

Affirmative Action

     Supports equality of results
          Sharing of incomes, jobs and material rewards, regardless of someone's economic position
               Not supported by the white mass
          Supreme Court Cases
               States vs Paradise (1987)
                    50% black quota system for promotions in the Alabama Dept. of Public Safety upheld
                    Purpose to correct past discrimination
               Richmond vs Crosen (1989)
                    Questioned affirmative action
                    Minority set aside program in Virginia violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment

Feminist

     1880's feminism centered on the protection of women in families
     Early 20th century feminism concentrated on women's suffrage
     1970's feminism focused on the ERA to the Constitution
          Failed - was not ratified by 38 states

Civil Rights Laws

     Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 - prevents racial and sexual discrimination in hiring and promotions
     Federal Equal Credit Opportunity Act Amendment of 1974 - prohibits sex discrimination in credit transactions
     Title IX of the Education Act Amendment of 1972 - bars discrimination in admissions, housing, rules, financial aid,
     pay and staff recruitment

Three main propositions:

1. Civil rights policy is a response of a rational elite
2. Elite opinion leads mass opinion, not vice-versa
3. Conflict between mass and elite will define the limits of civil rights policy

• 14^th Amendment
• Segregation
• Brown decision
• Resistance to desegregation
• caused by executive intervention - 1957

• de facto segregation
• Federal court mandates
• busing
• gov’t responsibility for segregation

• policy formed on equality of opportunity
• Shifted from opportunity to affirmative action
• beginning of reverse discirmination
• questions when is it good?

• followed model of civil rights movement
• The ERA gave elite support of womens rights
• Women and Economy - "The glass ceiling"

• Elite intervention - "Roe v Wade"
• Mass response:
• end public funding
• aimed at limiting rights to abortion

• Rational civil rights policy is initiated by some elite
• Mass resistance can only serve to limit the lengths to which the elite can go

-Crime fighting strategy is deterrence: to make cost of committing crime greater than benefits
- Strategy focuses on:

1. certainty- crime= costly punishment
2. swiftness- justice must be swift
3. severity- it has to be harsh - Author argues that crime is down and that it can be attributed to, crackdowns, community policing and longer prison sentences.
[BUT Steven Leavitt's "Freakonomics" thesis: teen street crime declined in 1990s partly owing to abortions among poor single women in 1980s.]
- Makes point that juvenile crime is on the rise and attributes it to their lax punishment. He feels as though in the juvenile sector there is an absence of deterrence

1. Social Heterogeneity
2. Socialization and Control
3. Irrational Crime
4. Innate Aggression
5. Deterrence vs. Liberty

1. Law Enforcement Act of 1994
2. Federal Gun Control Act of 1968
3. Brady Law

Due Process vs. fight crime
- Death Penalty:
- no deterring effect
- falls short because of racial bias and infrequency of use
- as crime gets worse, may become necessary

Chapter 5: Health and Welfare
(Jared Lyles, 2000) [Inserts by Lewis]

1. [Majority of families have one recipient.]

1. SSA of 1935 helps establish a basic framework
2. Depression produces realization that poverty is not always individuals fault, from this, comes various types of insurances:
3. Social Security- most expensive program in federal budget
4. Medicare- health services for the elderly
5. Medicaid- health services for the poor (largest welfare to the poor)
6. Food Stamps
7. TANF, 1996: [only] Temporary Assistance for Needy families

[Liberal and conservative critics of anti-poverty programs argue over estimates of poor.]

[Latent poverty: those 20% who would be poor without govt benefits.]

[Feminization of poverty: 2/3 of poor are in single-mom families -- half of those live in poverty.

Especially common in black and hispanic communities.]

[Poverty based on income, not wealth, so elderly poor may have assets.]

[Human capital theory: poor have low productivity]

[Inadequate demand, economic stagnation -- implies solution is growth.]

[Discrimination: blacks earn less than whites at same educational level.]

[Culture of poverty, present oriented]

deinstitutionalization

decriminalization of vagrancy and addiction

failure of community care.]

access issue

prescription drug coverage issue

nursing home care issue

cost inflation

defensive medicine.

managed care

patients' rights

A) Resolve racial conflicts and build an integrated society
B) Inspire patriotism and good citizenship
C) Provide Values
D) Various forms of recreation and entertainment
E) Reduce conflict
F) Basically everything except educate

A. Citizen groups that have an interest in education

1. Parents
2. Taxpayers
3. Employers

B. Public Strongly Support:

1. The 3 "‘r’s"
a. Reading
b. Writing
c. Arithmetic
2. Enforcing minimum standards with testing
3. Testing teachers for mastery of basic skills

C. SAT scores

1. SAT scores where declining due to more students taking the test
2. College Board recentered scores in 1996 to boost scores
3. Now more than 500 students a year make a perfect 1600

D. Global Comparison

1. Performance of 500,000 U.S. 13 year olds tested compared with 42 nations was 28 in math and 17 in science.
2. The top nations had a cultural value for education and is valued in the family

E. Nation at Risk

1. 1983 report by National Commission on Excellence in Education (A Nation at Risk) recommended a back to the basics reform

a. Minimum high school curriculum of 4 years of English, 3 yrs of math, 3 yrs of social science, and ½ year of computer science

b. 4-6 yrs of foreign language beginning in elementary school
c. standardized testing for achievement
d. more homework, a 7 hr school day, and a 200-220 day school year
e. reliable grades and standardized tests for promotion and graduation
f. "performance based" salaries for teachers

F. Testing

1. Minimum Competence Testing (MCT)

a. test used for the need of remedial education or requirement for promotion or graduation
b. about ½ the states require these test and are usually on 8^th or 9^th grade lv
c. Educators fear this will start teaching to the test education
d. some charge the test are racially biased

G. Teacher Testing

1. NEA opposes all teacher testing, but the AFT willing to accept competency testing only for new teachers

A. Citizens vs. Professionals

1. Citizens are often pitted against professional educators about education policy

A. Public Universities

1. 3/4 of college students go to public colleges or universities

B. Federal Aid

1. State government carries the major burden of higher education
2. Fed government directly assists many college students through grants and loans

C. Student Assistance

1. Pell Grants
2. Stafford Loans
3. Perkins Loan
4. Work Study
5. Most financial aid is given to middle class students

D. Research money is given to large Universities for scientific research

A. Separation of church and state comes from first amendment
B. Does not prohibit adoption of programs that help all children
C. Prayer is unconstitutional in almost all ways

• Environmental Externalities
• externalities occur when one individual, firm, gov’t undertakes an activity that imposes unwanted costs on others
• the shifting of costs onto others
• Costs of Regulation
• environmental policies are costly, but all gov’t combined pays 1/4
• other 3/4 of 100 billion/year is paid by business and consumers
• Benefits in Relation to Costs
• costs of policies should not outweigh benefits to society
• Risk Assessment
• environmental policy is a respondent to popularly perceived risks
• some level of risk will always be present in environmental policy
• Bureaucratic Incentives
• they will face intense criticism if they do not impose health regulations
• Command and Control
• traditional approach of environ. policy where controls are designated by administrative or legislative rules
• Market Incentives
• more effective to establish private economic incentives to curb pollution than uniform regulations

• Solid Waste Disposal
• landfills, incineration, recycling
• Hazardous Waste
• Water Pollution
• sludge, organic wastes, and chemical effluents
• Air Pollution
• motor vehicles, electrical power plants, and heating are all main sources

• Interest Group Economics
• recruit members and money to dramatize environmental threats
• Shaping Public Opinion
• Difficult to give really effective media coverage due to difficulty of subject, however, activity and media coverage caused shift in pub. opinion
• Interest Group Politics
• show selves as clean, opposition as dirty
• must prove cost to fix is lower than results if not fixed
• Radical Environmentalism
• opposition to economic development, scientific advancement, and even humanity

• EPA; NEPA; Clean Air acts of 1970,1990; Water pollution control act of 1972, Endangered Species Act of 1973, etc.
• EPA is the most powerful and far-reaching bureaucracy in govt today

• Property rights and takings
• Regulatory problems
• Pollution taxes and Emission Allowances
• Waste charges

Incrementalism in fiscal and monetary policy

Fiscal policies- decisions about taxing, spending, and deficit levels, determined
mostly by the President and the Office aof Budget and Management

Monetary Policies- decisions concerning money supply and interest rates ,
determined by the Federal Reserve

Fiscal and Monetary policies are made incrementally, meaning that modest
changes are made, and according to what was policy was used the preceeding year.

Incrementalism
    -Incrementalism provides very good short term predictions of government policies
    -Policy makers do not have the time , energy or information ro review budgets every year

Economic Theories as Policy Guides

Classical Theory -
        -market economy that self adjusts
        -maximum productive, and stable if govt. leaves it alone
        -If there are more workers than there is demand, then wages will fall. But, businesses will want
        more workers at lower wages - thus employment is ended.
        -If demand falls, business inventories will rise and prices will be reduced to sell, until demand
        picks up again

Keynesian Theory-
        -Great Depression of the 1930's challenged popular confidence in classical economics
        -economic stability is a product of fluctuations in demand
                both unemployment and lower wages reduced the demands
        -only govt. can take necessary steps to expand demand by spending more and lowering taxes
        -to counter inflationary and recesionary trends, the govt. would take opposite steps

Supply-Side Economics
        -attention to long term economic growth is more important than short-term manipulation of demand
        -economic growth increases overall supply of goods and services and thereby holds down prices
        -standards of living are improved with the availability of more goods and services at stable prices
        -free market is better equipped to bring about lower prices and more supplies
        -govt. is the problem
        -high taxes penalize hard work, creativity, investment, and savings
        -govt. regulations should be minimized to increase and supply rather than demand and consumption

Monetary Economics
        -assumes that the suply of money in the economy heavily influences supply, demand, and prices
            (general performance of the economy)
        -Therefore, the govt., or primarily the Federal Reserve controls them money in inflationary and
            recessionary times

Federal Reserve
        -most independent of all executive agencies
        -expand or contract the money supply through its oversight of the operation of banks in
            in the Federal Reserve system
        -No members ever removed

The Performance of the American Economy

Gross Domestic Product
        -nations total production of goods and services for a single year valued in terms of market prices
        -sum of all the goods and services that people purchase
        -measures the performance of the economy

The unemployment rate is the percentage of the civilian labor force who are
looking for work or waiting to return to or begin a job

Inflation erodes the value of the dollar because higher prices purchase fewer goods and services

Fragmentation in Budget Making - the OMB and the Congressional Budget Office are supposed to bring together requests and fit them into the whole.....the segmentation helps to secure political aggreement on the budget as well as reduce the burden of red tape in the process

Entitlements
        -are determined by past policies of Congress and represent commitments in future federal budgets
        -provide classes of people with legally enforceable rights to benefits
        -account for over half of govt. spending

Budgetary Process
       -The President, through the Office of OMB has the key responsibilty for formulating the budget
       -The OMB sends out ceilings and floors to agencies, in which they take requests
       -After budgets are compiled, are sent to the Capitol, where reviewed by the Congressional Budget
        office, and house and Senate committees
       -Congressional approval is divided into thirteen seperate appropriations bills, covering broad
            categories of spending

Appropriations acts provide money for spending.
Line item veto

IN order to avoid shutdowns, Congress grants "continuing resolutions",
authorizing agencies to keep spending money for a specified period of time
 
 

-economic policy is exercised through

fiscal policies: decisions about taxation, spending and deficit levels

monetary policies: money supply and interest rates

-decided by federal spending levels

-fiscal and monetary policies have small changes at existing levels

-goals of economic policy

growth in economic output and standards of living, full and productive

employment of the nations work force and stable prices with low inflation

-this type of policy making is an example of incrementalism because it uses last years spending to decide present years budgeting

-Theories used in this type of policy making:

macroeconomics: tries to explain economic cycles and to prescribe

governmental policies to counter inflation and recession

classical: view market economy as self adjusting mechanism

Keynesian: economic stability product of fluctuations in demands, written into employment act of 1946-promotes "maximum employment production and purchasing power"

- Reagan used Supply side economics - long term growth is more important than short term demand- free market is better equip than government to bring lower prices and supply and demand

- Clinton used Enterprise Economics- government is responsible to stimulate growth- and invest in

• 1) human capital
• 2) technology
• 3) infrastructure

- Monetarist Economics- stability can be achieved only by holding rate of money and economic growth at the same pace

-govn’t spending has grown because of "Uncontrollable benefits" ex:

• entitlement programs
• index of benefits
• cost of in-kind benefits( non-cash)
• interest on debt
• back door spending

- Social Security is the largest item in the budget while Medicare and

Medicaid are the fastest growing

-Burden of Debt ( p. 229) goven’t spends more than it recieves in revenues and this drives up the debt..things that cause this:

• burdening future
• slowing economic growth
• limiting policy initiatives
• default& Hyperinflation
• dealing with deficits
• Tax increase & Deficits
• Deficits and entitlements
• Politics of deficits

- Formal Budgetary Process & Spending Agencies p.234

OMB in the executive office- has key responsibility for budget preparation (president has no formal powers over taxing and spending

house and Senate budget committees- they established the CBO to review presidential budget after submission to congress

Appropriations Act- provides money for spending, nothing can be spent w/o it

Appropriations Committees- used for specific appropriations in both houses

(more in the house than the senate)

Revenue Act-House committee on ways and means and the senate finance

committee work mostly with taxation

Presidential Veto

Continuing Resolutions and "Shutdowns"- any govn’t agency that does not pass an appropriations act may not take money from the treasury and is obligated to shut down continuing resolutions allows a way around this

Introduction

-there is no better illustration of the influence of interest groups in policymaking than nat’al tax policy

-tax laws treat different types of income differently

-unfairness, complexity, & inefficiency of tax laws can be attributed to interest groups

-Tax Reform Act 1986, IGs suffer defeat

Federal Tax System

-total revenues from taxes and fees consistently fail to match total spending by the gov

Individual Income Taxes

Excise and Custom Duties

- progressive tax--high income pay higher percentage of incomes in taxes

- proportionality/flat tax--all income groups pay same rate

- universality--all types of income subject to same rates

Economic Growth

1. Reagan tax cuts take effect and nation began econ recovery

• slowed rate of growth of nat’al revenue

- Tax Reform Act of 1986--reduction in tax rates in place of tax breaks

-many opponents--industry, real estate, multinational corps, oil & gas, labor unions...

Compromising with Special Interest

-key to overcoming opposition of special interests was to offer a tax rate low enough that most people would be willing to give up deductions and preferences

-bipartisan effort against special interests

Clinton,Deficits, and Taxes

- Clinton win on promise to revive econ

- Clinton propose raising taxes on affluent, elderly, corps, &energy

- Clinton and Reps agree to middle class tax cut in 1997

Tax Reform and the Flat Tax

1. There is no better illustration of the influence of interest groups in policymaking than in national tax policy
1. Tax laws treat different types of income differently
2. Unfairness, complexity, and inefficiency of tax laws can be attributed to interest groups
3. Tax Reform Act of 1986, interest groups suffer defeat
2. Federal Tax System
1. Total revenues from taxes and fees consistently fail to match total spending by the government
2. Individual income taxes are the largest single source of government revenue
3. Today, people pay more in Social Security taxes than in income taxes
3. Taxation, Fairness, and Growth
1. Progressive tax–higher incomes pay higher percentage of income taxes
2. Flat tax–all income groups pay same tax rate
3. Universality–all types of income subject to same rates
4. Economic growth
1. High taxes discourage growth
2. If taxes are reduced, might increase government revenues (supply side economics)
3. Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981–tax cuts take effect and economic recovery begins; tradeoff is that growth rate of national revenue slowed
4. Tax Reform and the Special Interests
1. Tax Reform Act of 1986–reduction in tax rates in exchange for simplified tax system
2. Many opponents–industry, real estate, multinational corporations, oil & gas, labor unions, etc.
5. Compromising with Special Interests
1. Key to overcoming oppositio of special interests was to offer a tax rate low enough that most people would be willing to give up deductions and preferences
2. Bipartisan effort against special interests
6. Clinton, Deficits, and Taxes
1. Clinton won on promise to revive economy
2. Clinton proposes raising taxes on affluent, elderly, corporations, and energy
3. Clinton and Republicans agree to middle class tax cut in 1997
7. Tax Reform and the Flat Tax
1. Eliminate exemptions, exclusions, deductions, and special treatment with a standardized rate on all forms of income
2. National sales tax–replace federal income tax and get rid of IRS; penalize consumption not production
3. IRS–"Simplifying tax laws would not only reduce cost of paying taxes but reassure taxpayer that the system is fair...It would reduce the power of the IRS...taxpayers’ bill of rights might strengthen safeguards against arbitrary actions of the IRS."

- 1/4 of the world’s total output is sold in a country other that where is it was made
- US exports 11%--aircraft, computers,-- and imports 12%--automobiles
- Comparative Advantage--what each nation produces best & shift toward making that
- US corps want lower trade barriers around the world--lower US tariffs
- GATT--General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade--regulate international trade
- WTO--World Trade Organization--adjudicate trade disputes among nations
- IMF--International Monetary Fund--facilitate trade by lending
- World Bank--long term loans
- NAFTA--eventual removal of all tariffs between US, Can, and Mex
- Dumping--sale of foreign goods in US markets at prices lower than charged in home--Japanese automobiles
- foreign trade lower US wages
- US corps want immigration for cheap labor
- Immigration Act of 1921--max # immigrants accepted each year
- Immigration and Reform Act of 1986/ Simpson-Mazzoli Act---regulate employers hiring immigrants
- aliens have no Constitutional right to come to US, but once here that have right to due process and equal protection
- US Supreme Court mandate that state and local gov’t can’t exclude immigrants from benefits
- Proposition 187

I. How Policies Are Made:

A. creating an issue, dramatizing it, calling attention to it, and pressuring government to
do something about it are important political tactics, they are tactics of agenda setting.

B. "nondecision making: occurs when influential individuals or groups or the political
system itself operates in society.

A. policy formulation is the development of policy alternatives dealing with problems on
the public agenda.

B. The White House: President and the executive branch are expected to be policy
initiators and Congress the arbitrators

C. Interest groups: formulate their own policy or do so in association with Congress
members

D. Legislative Staffs: reflect the general view of their bosses, they research issues,
schedule legislative hearings, line up expert to testify and write and rewrite bills

E. Think Tanks: policy planning orgs are central in coordinating points in policymaking;
they bring together corporate and financial institutions, mass media, government officials, and intellectuals to reach a consensus on what action should take place.

A. makes relatively little difference in the major direction of public policy whether Dem

or Rep dominate the political scene

-each nation must have its own defense policy: assess threats
                                                                      develop strategies
                                                                      appropriate forces/budget

                    CONFRONTING NUCLEAR THREATS
-Deterrence: maintains nuclear peace, emphasizes 2nd strike capability, psychological defense,
fear of retaliation
-Strategic Weapons: TRIAD defense (ICBMs (Minuteman), sub-based missles (Trident
missles), manned bombers (B-52 bombers)
                                            -"second strike capability"

                         ARMS CONTROL GAMES
SALT I- (strategic arms limitation talks), 1972 between US and USSR, 1st effort to limit
nuclear weapons and ABS (anti-ballistic missle systems)
SALT II- (1979), "over-all limit" on nuclear launch vehicles(bombers and missiles, but subs
untouched)
START- (strategic arms reduction talks), reductions in nuclear weapons, equality, verification
with long- and short-term notice
START I- (1991), agreement on long-range missiles
START II- eleminates 1st-strike nuclear attack by beginning to reduce amount and only have
reactionary nuclear defenses

                       POST COLD WAR NUCLEAR
                         DETERENCES/DEFENSES
-minimal deterence- dismantling of all old weapons
-non deterrable threats- terrorists, rougue generals/unauthorized launches, accidental launches
-spread of mass terror weapons- Iran, Iraq, Libya
-Ballistic Missile Defense(aka Star Wars)- weapons in space to be used as defense (i.e.,
lasers/missiles to shoot down incoming missiles/bombers)

                     NATO AND EUROPEAN SECURITY
-NATO- (north atlantic treaty organization), U.S. and allies, opposed by Warsaw Pact (USSR
and other communist allies)
-collapse of eastern communism- reduced threat on western europe and U.S
-Germany Reunited-balances power in Europe
-USSR crumbles- Soviet Union collapses, Warsaw pact folds

                           REGIONAL THREATS
-Middle East- (Iran, Iraq, Libya, Syria)
-Asia- (Tawain, North Korea)

                               TERRORISM
-punish terrorists and terrorist-sponsered nations
-dissuade other nations from using or supporting terrorists

                     WHEN TO USE MILITARY FORCE
-protect interests- (support of vital national interests with defined objectives
-sufficient strength to fight/win war
-have support of US people
-last resort

                       DETERMINING FORCE FACTORS
-should be threat driven (respond to threats)
-"1&1/2 war readiness"- should be able/ready to fight and win one major war and still have
enough reserves to fight a smaller battle
-investments help defend and deter

Deterrence assumes rational enemies unwilling to suffer destruction

9/11/01 attacks directed against civilians

Terrorism attacks noncombatants to gain publicity, impose fear.

Democratic leaders are especially vulnerable and must sacrifice some liberties

Global terrorism has increased and become more destructive, supported by states.

Political support for US administration soared in short term

Airlines lost custom, Security provided by new TSA.

USA PATRIOT Act: surveillance unleashed; property seizures; detention without trial; aliens reporting; crime to harbor terrorists; enemy combatants not POWs.

US Supreme Court (2000): detainees entitled to judicial hearing.

Oct 2001 EO: Tom Ridge coordinator of Office of Homeland Security.

2002: new Dept created from: Customs; INS; Border Patrol; TSA; Coast Guard; Secret Service; & FEMA.

Security Advisory System scale from low threat to severe, with required security responses.

Difficult to integrate 200,000 workers from 22 agencies.

FBI, CIA and DOD remain outside, merely coordinated.

Must collect, analyze and disseminate intelligence to consumer agencies.

Independent agency: CIA

Agencies within DOD: DIA, NSA, NRO, NIMA, 4 armed services agencies.

Agencies within other depts: State, Energy, Treasury, FBI, Homeland Security.

Director of Central Intelligence.

Prepares PDB and NIE reports.

Supervises CIA including covert ops but these consist mostly of economic aid and military training.

Does not supervise other agencies.

Integrating Foreign and Domestic Intelligence

1947 NS Act banned CIA domestic activities, had only to give info to FBI for enforcement.

Patriot Act permits both agencies separately to conduct domestic surveillance.

FBI has put top priority on counter-terrorism, but prevention may conflict with traditional law enforcement processes and with civil liberties.

War against terrorism will be a long one.

Historic wartime measures have infringed on civil liberties

Civil war suspension of habeas corpus

WW1 Espionage Act and imprisonment of Eugene Debs

WW2 Japanese internment

Costs to liberty: surveillance, seizures, detentions, military tribunals, DARPA's data mine.

-Policy evaluation is learning about the consequences of public policy

-Policy evaluation research is the objective, systematic, empirical examination of the effects of policy goals.

Impact of policy is measured through:

- some believe that experimenting with policy idea is best to do before implementing, but this
beings about some serious questions:

1. Policy evaluation: learning about the consequences of public policy
2. impact of policy
     1. target group situation
     2. non target groups
     3. future as well as immediate conditions
     4. direct cost in terms of money and resources devoted to the program
     5. indirect cost, societal
3. policy impact is not the same as policy output: impact is concerned with all
variables, output is concerned with monetary and target group production
4. an assortment of long term and short term goals for a program must be
established in order to keep a program on schedule
5. often people rate the effectiveness on the government by programs
implemented but not on the actual on the enforcement of the program
6. public policy has transformed from who gets what, when and how to a focus
on image
7. television has had an impact on public policy by transforming it in to a focus
on appearance to the public
8. because of the transformation and wide coverage of public policy , there has
been a rejuvenation of national pride and support of the American people to the
government
    example: Civil Rights Act 1968
9. Types of public policy reviews:
     1. Hearings and reports: public policy administrators are asked to report to
the chief executives on the effectiveness of their program, often they over
exaggerate the progress and under exaggerate the cost
     2. site visits: administrators observe the sites of the programs and rate
their management as well as their compliance with guidelines
     3. program measure: covers program outputs
     4. comparison of professional standards: compares various programs against
each other to determine their effectiveness in out puts
     5. systematic program evaluation: done with measuring the effect if the
program was not established
     6. before and after comparison: measures the atmosphere of the target
group before the program is establishes and the difference after the program is
installed
     7. projected trend line versus post program comparison: takes a period of
time and measures hoe the target group is doing and compares that with the
same amount of time with the program installed, this is effective because it
measures all variables, including the environment change in that time period and
it considers the effect on the target group as well as the non target groups