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PSC 201: American Government

1: Alexis De Tocqueville, "Democracy in America".
2: James, Lord Bryce, "American Commonwealth".
3: Louis Hartz, "Liberal Tradition in America"
4: Theda Skocpol, "Diminished Democracy" [+]
4: Robert Putnam, “Bowling Alone” [discontinued]
5: Cornell West, "Race Matters" [+] NEW
5: Everett Carl Ladd, Ladd Report [discontinued]

-The idea of equality was America's identifying mark.
-Must study an infant to see the germ of his vices form
    -See the first images which the external world casts upon the dark mirror of his mind.
-The entire man is, so to speak, to be seen in the cradle of the child.
-Growth of nations presents something analogous to this :they bear some marks of their origin.
-America is the only country in which it has been possible to witness the natural & tranquil growth of
  society.
-The emigrants who came to occupy America were different in many ways, but they had some things in common. Language is the strongest & the most durable that can unite mankind.
-2 causes that led to a complete democracy
    -On leaving the mother country the emigrants had in general no notion of superiority over one another.
    -Laws were made to establish a gradation of rank.
-Land is the basis for aristocracy
    -Unless fortunes are territorial there is no true aristocracy.
-The Law of equal division exercises its influence not merely upon the property itself, but it affects the minds of the heirs, & brings their passions into play.
    -These indirect consequences tend powerfully to the destruction of large fortunes.
-Family pride is often founded upon an illusion of self-love.
    -A man wishes to perpetuate & immortalize himself.
    -When family pride ends, individual selfishness begins.
-In America men are seen as more equal in their strength, than in any other country of the world.

~ An aristocratic Frenchman who came to the U.S. in 1831
~ only 25 years old
~ spent nine months traveling throughout the U.S. in search of America's essence
~ recorded his thoughts and observations on America's social and political institutions, and reported meticulously on the structure of government and the judicial system. Democracy in America, the book that resulted from his journey, set the stage for discussions about democracy that are still being carried on today (I.e.... issues like religion, the press, money, class structure, racism, the role of government, the judicial system,etc)

~America in 1831
a rapidly growing population of just over 13 million people, America was still a predominantly ruralcountry, consisting of 24 states and a largely unsettled territorial claim stretching west to the Pacific Ocean.

Tocqueville felt that a countries' origin ultimately influenced the development of its government. Therefore, he viewed the virtue of Equality of Opportunity as America's greatest asset. Toqueville argued that from the start all Americans were equal, if not indentured or inslaved. People who entered the US had different reasons for leaving their countries and different goals once they were here. But, their language, and their common English background united them. Toqueville also assumed that the emigrants in general had no feeling of superiority over each other; because he reasoned that the happy and the powerful do not flee their countries. You could come from an aristocracy, but the harshness of toiling the land to make it prosperous affected everyone. The products of the land weren't enough to feed master and farmer at the same time..small plots were needed to get the most production.Toqueville believed that Americans were equal because they all started out with nothing and had to work, they all had the same chance and EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY. He felt that this had undoubtedly also show up in the political arena in the form of the American democracy.

• Born in Belfast, Ireland May 10, 1838
• Attended high school and college in Glasgow, then went on to Trinity College, Oxford.
• Practiced law for a few years in London
• Became head professor of civil law at Oxford
• Gained reputation as historian early on…due mostly to his works/studies dealing with the Holy Roman Empire
• 1870 was his first trip of many to the U.S.
• He was an ardent liberal—elected to Parliament in 1880 and served for a number of years.
• In 1886, he was made Under-Secretary of State of Foreign Affairs.

• In it, Bryce focuses on Equality in America
• When American began there were no big corporations or high dollar industries—virtually no poverty.

• Most people have a good general education/Some have exceptional education
• Equality has diminished by this time and will even further.

• In America, no one is to think himself better of anyone else—no one has any special consideration shown to them except for the governor, chief justices, president…etc.
• Despite this, Americans worship wealth. They "make a fuss" over the rich, their doings, the speculation of their intentions, and gossip about their private lives.
• At the time, building a fortune made you a hero because you accomplished what so many strived for and failed.
• However, an immoral or vulgar person of wealth might find societies doors closed to him. The wealth of a man did not change the laws that applied to him.
• There is no rank to be bought in America.
• The American public is full of curiosity and wonder when it comes to the rich rather than of respect.
• People with titles of importance are few, even those of highest official rank do not broadcast the score of their position.

• Americans hold everyone at the bottom along with themselves.
• If a man is enormously rich, or a great orator, soldier, writer, even President he is an object of interest, admiration, possibly even of reverence, but he is deemed to be still of the same flesh and blood as other men.

• Bryce went on to serve various prestigious positions one of those being the British Ambassador to the United States (1907 – 1913)
• Following the outbreak of the 1^st World War, Lord Bryce was appointed to report on alleged German atrocities in Belgium, proving them true. His reputation convinced Americans and his report influenced their opinion toward Germany before entering the war.
• During the last nine years of his life, Bryce served in the International Court at the Hague, supported the establishment of the League of Nations, and published his final work Modern Democracies in 1921.
• Died Jan. 22, 1922

-Americans regard one another as fundamentally equal as human beings.
-US said all over the world to be preeminently the land of equality.
-Some philosophers say that distinctions of rank are
so inevitable, that however you try to expunge them, they are sure to reappear.
-Legal equality
    -Passive or private equality
        -Equal possession of civil rights by all inhabitants.
    -Active or public equality
        -Equal possession by all of rights to a share in the gov't.
    -Both exist in America
-Equality of material possessions
    -Wealth and all that wealth gives
-Equality of Education & intelligence
-Equality of social status or rank
-Equality of estimation   -of the value which men set upon one another.
-America now has some poverty & many large fortunes & a greater number of gigantic fortunes than in any other country.
-There is no rank in America.
-No man is entitled to think himself better than his fellows.
-The fault which Americans are most frequently accused of is the worship of wealth.
-In America, if his private character be bad, openly immoral, personally vulgar, or dishonest, the best
society may keep its doors closed against him.
-In America, men hold others to be at the bottom-exactly the same as themselves.

II.  Forms of Equality
 A. Legal Equality
  1. Passive/Private
  2. Active/Public
 B. Material Equality
  1. Wealth
  2. Education
  3. Social Status/Rank
 C. Estimation Equality

III. Love of Wealth
 A. Both Tocqueville and Bryce mention
 B. Rich admired/Not respected(revered)
 C. Greater wealth /= (doesn't equal) Greater social status

IV. Some Questions
 A. Why do Americans strive so hard for wealth? Education?
 B. Could Bryce’s views on the wealthy having no social ‘pull’ be
applied today?
 C. Could Bryce’s views on estimation equality be applied today?

-Hartz says that America, which is considered in many ways the most revolutionary nation in the world, never had a revolution to attain the goal of equality.
-America was settled by men who fled from the feudal & clerical oppressions of the old world.
-America skipped the feudal stage of history meaning it lacks a genuine revolutionary tradition.
-Even though America is known as being liberal, there has never been a liberal movement or a liberal party.
-Liberalism is a stranger in the land of its greatest realization and fulfillment.
-The basic ethical problem of a liberal society is the danger of unanimity.
-Americans were not in truth world revolutionaries.
-Traditionalism of Americans often bore amazing marks of antihistorical rationalism.
-Americans were not either rationalist or traditionalists.
-America is conservative, but the principles conserved are liberal and some are radical.
-Simplicity of manners was the mark of the revolutionary colonist.
-Freedom in the fullest sense implies both variety and equality.
-American political thought is a veritable maze of polar contradictions:
    -pragmatism & absolutism
    -historicism & rationalism
    -optimism & pessimism
    -materialism & idealism
    -individualism & conformism
 
 

• Feels that ignorance in the majority can limit American liberalism

          Discussion Questions
• Why does Hartz feel that the oxymorons in America exist the way that they do?
• Do You feel that the Situation domestically and abroad affected Hartz’s view of Liberalism in America in the 1950’s?
• What do you feel Hartz would think about the 2000 presidential election?

• recently, huge shift in type of groups and organizations participating in American govt. / civic life
• from 1800s through 1950s and 60s (over a century), groups consisted of ordinary people
• a mixture of different business associations
• varying membership groups governed representatively & joined voluntarily
• since 60s, the organizations for the common man have been replaced by new breeds
• groups funded by & in charge of distributing money given by wealthy supporters
• professionally led groups acting on the behalf of the "poor and vulnerable"
• citizens’ groups now organized and run by professionals and experts
• noticeably missing from the picture
• voluntary, nation-spanning membership associations
• especially those with
• popular membership (average citizens)
• cross-class membership (rich and poor included)

• Skocpol reasons that the shift cannot be explained by generational replacement alone
• changes took place over a period of only 30 yrs; from the 1960s-1990s
• too short a time span
• sudden shift not likely to be caused solely by gradual process
• changes were not merely seen in low membership and levels of involvement
• complex organization
• "engaging in public affairs in very new ways"
• nor can they be fully explained by focusing on mass attitudes and intimate interactions of society
• all forms of social interaction do not hold equal weight
• it is the publicly relevant voluntary activities which determine the health of Am. Democracy
• Skopol tells us the choices made by the masses concerning politics and civic involvement depend on a number of things (such as)
• the means of participation available
• the extent to which they can feel involved
• the attitude they form concerning their participation
• Can I actually change things?
• Does my opinion really matter?
• With these factors in mind, we should look for answers in investigating
• the changing roles of leaders
• shifting social identities & modes of organization
• and examining the power, resources, and institutional leverage available
• (as well as who they’re available to)

• After 1960, changes in racial ideals and gender relationships opened many new avenues for political leaders to explore
• centrally managed lobbying became the favored form of tackling these new issues
• Shifts in class structure and elite careers made available experts and specialists to professionally organize the civic associations
• With all the resources, activists, technology, and funding pooled, members were no longer needed in large numbers
• Civil leaders were no longer committed to mobilizing vast numbers of fellow citizens into ongoing membership activities

• Without these groups, democracy is weakened
• The most privileged citizens can operate wholly among themselves without involving the majority of Americans
• Classic membership federations allowed for a free exchange of information between different levels of government
• As these organizations die out, so does their gift of communication
• The unified involvement of large numbers of average citizens is vital to the processes of democracy
• "As de Tocqueville recognized long ago"
• ppl. in democracy must have voluntarily created associations if they are to
• gain leverage, thereby actively influencing and shaping their govt.
• express shared identities and values
• play an active role in their government
• Without leaders, no such groups arise
• civic leaders are needed to
• organize and lead existing group
• regularly recruit new members
• invite fellow citizens and group members to actively participate
• (of course, citizens must in turn respond)
• political leaders lack motivation
• democratic leadership, organization, and motivation occur when
• election to office depends on close-fought, high-turnout elections
• power and influence are achieved only by drawing others into civic activities

• Skocpol acknowledges unifying potential of the terrorist attacks of 9/11
• Social unity and support was immediately abundant
• Racial, ethnic, and economical boundaries momentarily forgotten
• 4 out of 5 were flying flags
• 70% gave charitable contributions
• Everyone was eager to reach out, cooperate, volunteer
• But in the absence of membership federations
• ppl. had too few opportunities to act on their civic urges
• the chance to begin ongoing public projects was wasted
• The "war against terrorism" itself presents problems
• Conducted by small numbers of highly specialized professional military forces
• (Sound familiar? These are the same reasons most citizens are alienated from participation in civic associations)
• No national military draft was needed
• Federal leaders were uncertain of the value of large numbers of volunteers
• How do you recruit, handle, or deploy massive numbers of untrained volunteers
• Skocpol ends by stressing her argument that as things stand now, "the U.S. has too few associations and leaders able and willing to mobilize citizens for shared national undertakings.

"If the promise of civic renewal is to be realized, national leaders, including federal officials, must reach out to organize and involve the American citizenry."

1) Social Capital
a) Connections among individuals, social networks, and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them.
b) Social Capital has two faces:

i) Private – which includes friendship, networking, and lending others or receiving a helping hand
ii) Public – which includes clubs and various organizations

i) Specific reciprocity – “I’ll do this for you if you do this for me”
ii) General reciprocity – “I’ll do this for you without expecting anything specific back form you.”

i) Bridging – (inclusive) whether by choice or necessity involving inward looking and tend to reinforce exclusive identities and homogenous groups.  (examples: ethnic fraternities, a fashionable country club).  Or simply put, just “getting by”.”
ii) Bonding – (exclusive) outward, and encompasses people across diverse social cleavages.  (examples: civil rights movement, youth service groups).  Or simply put “getting ahead.”
iii) Both Bonding and Bridging are dimensions along which we can compare different forms of social capital.

2) Why the Decline in Social Capital
a) Time and money pressures, usually as a result of a two career family (10%).
b) Suburb nation, comminuting, and sprawl (10%).
c) Electronic entertainment (25%).
d) Generational Change – the slow replacement of the civic generation by the less involved children and grandchildren (about 50% of overall decline).

3) Does Social Capital Really Matter
a) Research suggests that civic connections make us healthy, wealthy, and wise.

i) Allows citizens to resolve collective problems more easily.
ii) Allows to easier community advancements by instilling more confidence and trustworthiness.
iii) It widens the awareness that we have towards others as people, and allows better understanding of each others situations.
iv) Provides better networking for jobs and help.
v) Psychologically and biologically it improves peoples lives.  Evidence shows people with a lot of social capital cope better with trauma and recover from illness faster.  It is a compliment or in some a cases a substitute for certain medications such as prozac

o Born 1953, Scholar, Pastor, civil rights activist,
o Professor of African American Studies and Religion at Princeton University, o Known for his contribution to civil rights post 1960s
o Attended Harvard, magna cum laude in Near Eastern Languages, o Ph. D from Princeton, o Yale Divinity School
o Longtime member of Democratic Socialists of America, o Considers himself a non-Marxist Socialist

o Written in 1993, Analyzes moral authority and racial debates concerning skin color
Book begins with West’s outrage over racial prejudice restating Du Bois’, “The problem of the Twentieth century is the problem of the color line.”
• West focuses much of his racial argument on the African American class verses “White European descent Americans”

• Liberal- solves racial problems economically: Blacks are to be “included” and “integrated” into “our” society
• Conservative- Solves racial problems through highlighting punishments of immoral actions.  Blacks are to be “worthy of acceptance” and “well behaved” by “our” way of life

• West believes that only certain Americans define what it means to be American and the rest of the Country must “fit in”
• Believes Black Nationalist groups go against “fitting in” and argues that each rests on a fundamental truth: White America has been historically weak-willed in ensuring racial justice and has continued to resist fully accepting the humanity of blacks.
• Believes in order to fix our problem and capture a new spirit we must

1- Admit that the most valuable sources for help, hope, and power consist of ourselves and our common history.
2-Focus our attention on the public square (common good)
3- Well being of our children
4- Large scale access to basic social goods (food, housing, health care)
Meet the need to generate NEW leadership!

-Americans are more active than ever in joining together for civic, religions, and political goals.
-U.S. is an individualist democracy
   -dependent on harnessing collective or cooperative energies.
-America's ideal is of active civic & social organizations, churches, philanthropies & voluntarism
-The great social debate
   -Are we spending down our supply of social capital?
-Hard to sort America's trends b/c it's associational life is extensive, diverse, & decentralized.
-Tocqueville saw political democracy growing out of experience acquired in the great variety of civil associations.
-Individualist democracy requires that many people be trained to participate & accept responsibility for social outcomes.
-Political parties provide democratic education for narrowly based community organizations.
    -Teach that people must join w/ many others of diverse views if they are to succeed in advancing general programs.
-American's civic engagement was spurred by the strength of their individualism.
-Civic engagement in America is high & increasing.
-America a post industrial society is organized around knowledge.
-Key developments defining post industrialism
    -exponential growth & branching of science
    -rise of a new intellectual technology
    -creation of systematic research through R&D budgets
    -codification of theoretical knowledge
-Post industrialism extends the resources for civic participation.
    -increases the proportion of the public given advanced educational skills & new communications
     tools.
    -frees broad segments of the populace from grinding physical toil.
    -widens the range of individual choice.
    -invites millions to explore civic life in ways previously out of reach for them.
-The parents didn't stop participating in parent/teacher groups, they joined other groups.
-Huge numbers of local parent-teacher groups disaffiliated from the national PTA & became a part of PTO.
-one reason for the PTA's decline is some say it became a lapdog of the teachers unions.
-Contemporary America hasn't dissipated the country's historic reserve of social capital.
 
 

Americans Worry About...
*  Civic decline
*  Social capital running low

Why Are We "Going the Wrong Way?"
*  Crime
*  Family breakdown
*  Weakening religious commitments
*  Standards

What Ladd Believes...
*  That the trends show civic envolvement extending, not contracting
*  It is easier to be an engaged citizen in the Information Economy than in
an Industrial *  Economy
*  The belief that civic envolvement is losing ground is based on the decline
of older groups
*  The scale of responsibility to the collective whole and individualism is
not "out of whack"

What Others Believe...
*  Vigorous citizenry addressing social needs is simply "Tocqueville
romanticism" (Theda Skocpol)
*  Contemporary individualism is the villain behind the surge in rates of
violent crime and drug abuse, divorce and abortion

Is There Trouble In the Schools?
*  PTA membership drops significantly
*  Other areas of envolvement within the schools have gone up considerably
*  Less than 1/4 of all schools now have a PTA, but is all hope lost for the
rest?

Ladd does not see the problem as being as great of one as does Robert Putnam
and others.  He believes that Americans associational life is extensive,
diverse, and decentralized.  This he believes is the reason that it is hard
to see trends.  If the public showed signs of abandoning its historic
inclination to join with others to meet common needs then there would be a
crisis of American citizenship.  However there are documented here millions
of involved children and parents in physical training, competition, soccer
leagues, natural environment, school programs religious life; etc showing
that the "nation of joiners, volunteers and givers" is not a myth, but still
strong in the America of today.